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EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 


PATRIOTISM  THROUGH  LITERATURE 


EDUCATION 
FOR  DEMOCRACY 


By 
EUGENE  C.  BROOKS 

Formerly  Professor  of  Education,  Trinity  College,  Durham,  North  Carolina 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  North  Carolina 

Author  of  "  The  Story  of  Corn,"  "  The  Story  of  Cotton," 

"  Agriculture  and  Rural  Life  Day,"  etc. 

Edited  by 

LYMAN  P.  POWELL 


RAND  McNALtt  &  COMPANY 
CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  igig,  by 
Rand  McNally  &  Company 


-%! 

— ^  THE  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Preface vii 

PART  I.    THE  SPIRIT  OF  DEMOCRACY  IN 
GOVERNMENT 

CHAPTER 

I.  Why  Teachers  Should  Study  the  Aims  of  the 

World  War 3 

II.    The  First  Fruits  of  Americanism     ....        8 

III.  How  Freedom  was  Preserved  in  the  United 

States 15 

IV.  Prussianism,    or    How    Autocracy    was    Pre- 

served IN  the  World 25 

V.    Prussianism  before  the  Bar  of  Public  Opinion  37 

VI.    Americanism  before  the  Bar  of  Public  Opinion  45 

VII.    How  Democracy  Made  Itself  Fit     ....  51 

PART  II.     DEMOCRACY  IN  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS 

VIII.  A  National  Ideal 65 

IX.  Autocracy  in  School  Administration     ...  70 
X.  Cooperation  in  School  Management     ...  80 
XI.  The  Spirit  of  Democracy  in  Student  Manage- 
ment   89 

XII.  Cooperation  in  Student  Management  ...  95 

XIII.  Community  Leadership  in  a  Democracy     .     .  108 

XIV.  Organizing  the  Community  for  Better  Leader- 

ship      118 

XV.    Directing  the  Energies  of  the  Community    .     133 

V 


VI  THE  CONTENTS 

PART  III.     A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  EDUCATION 

XVI.    A  New  Emphasis  IN  Classroom  Instruction  .  147 

XVII.    Regard  for  Law  and  Order  the  Basis  for  Good 

Citizenship 152 

XVIII.     Suggestions  for  Teaching  Respect  for  Law 

AND  Order 160 

XIX.    Suggestions  for  Teaching  Respect  for  Law 

AND  Order  —  Continued 168 

XX.    A  Quickened  Moral  Sense  Necessary  to  Good 

Citizenship 178 

XXI.    The  Moral  Aim  in  Teaching 185 

XXII.    Idleness  a  Foe  to  Good  Citizenship  195 

XXIII.  The  School  Must  Attack  the  Problem  of  Idle- 

ness      202 

XXIV.  Ignorance  a  Foe  to  Good  Citizenship  .     .     .     213 
XXV.    Lessons  Drawn  from  Community  and  National 

Life 224 

PART  IV.    AIDS  TO  TEACHERS 
XXVI.    The  Library  and  Government  Aids       .     .     .     241 

The  Index 257 


THE   PREFACE 

This  book  is  divided  into  four  parts:  (i)  Democracy  as 
contrasted  with  autocracy  in  public  institutions  is  the 
theme  of  the  first  part.  Since  the  ideal  of  educational 
institutions  should  be  in  a  large  measure  the  same  as  that 
of  a  nation,  teachers,  in  order  to  keep  the  ideal  pure  and 
to  lead  the  youth  toward  a  larger  freedom,  should  seek 
to  understand  what  is  the  intent  of  the  nation.  Inci- 
dentally an  outline  for  teaching  American  and  modem 
European  history  is  also  given.  (2)  The  reader  is  then 
carried  from  administration  in  political  institutions  to 
administration  in  educational  institutions.  Is  the  latter 
too  autocratic  even  for  a  democracy?  Is  there  enough 
of  cooperation  between  superintendents  and  teachers, 
between  teachers  and  pupils,  and  between  the  school  and 
the  community?  Many  concrete  illustrations  are  given 
to  show  how  cooperation  may  become  more  effective  and 
how  it  may  be  increased.  (3)  The  third  part  treats  of 
classroom  instruction.  What  should  be  its  aim?  How 
nearly  should  that  aim  coincide  with  the  national  ideal 
and  how  far  short  has  it  fallen?  Here  again  there  are 
many  examples  given  showing  that  aims  and  methods 
in  classroom  instruction  have  been  improved  through  a 
saner  cooperation  and  by  the  use  of  subject  matter  drawn 
more  from  the  world  around  the  school.  (4)  The  fourth 
part  contains  aids  for  the  teacher. 

In  the  great  reconstruction  to  take  place  throughout  the 
world* as  a  result  of  the  World  War,  the  educational  insti- 
tutions will  undoubtedly  be  affected.  But  since  there 
will  not  be  a  new  political  system  created  in  America, 


Vlll  THE   PREFACE 

there  will  not  be,  in  all  probability,  a  new  educational 
system  created.  It  is  true  that  before  the  war  America 
was  already  working,  feebly  here,  effectively  there,  but 
working  in  the  right  direction.  But  what  is  needed  most 
is  not  a  reorganization,  not  any  radical  changes  in  the 
system,  but  a  real  strengthening  of  the  system  which 
will  infuse  new  life  into  some  of  its  dead  members,  shift 
the  emphasis  from  outworn  formulas  to  subject  matter 
and  exercises  vital  to  the  new  freedom,  and  enlarge  the 
sphere  of  cooperation,  which  is  the  essence  of  democracy. 
The  contents  of  this  book  have  been  developed  in  the 
classroom  and  in  public  lectiires  during  a  period  of  ten 
years.  The  quotations  introducing  each  chapter  and  the 
concrete  illustrations  collected  are  evidences  that  educa- 
tional leaders  have  been  thinking  along  these  lines,  that 
teachers  were  practicing  the  new  creed  even  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  and  that  with  the  proper  encourage- 
ment and  cooperation  teachers  of  America  may  hasten 
the  day  when  needed  reforms  in  education  will  be  made 
all  along  the  line. 


PART   I 

THE  SPIRIT  OF  DEMOCRACY  IN 
GOVERNMENT 


Right  as  the  Supreme  Power 

In  every  free  country  the  best  minds  must  now  address  them- 
selves to  the  means  of  deterring  aggressive  Governments  from  war 
and  enthroning  Public  Right  as  the  supreme  Power  in  inter- 
national affairs.  With  goodwill,  with  an  unselfish  devotion  to  the 
highest  and  most  permanent  interests  of  humanity,  nothing  is 
impossible 

If  things  are  not  made  better  after  this  war  the  prospect  will  be 
darker  than  ever.  Darker  because  the  condition  of  the  world  will 
have  grown  so  much  worse  that  the  recurrence  of  like  calamities 
will  have  been  recognized  as  a  thing  to  be  expected  and  the  causes 
of  those  calamities  as  beyond  all  human  cure.  Rather  let  us  strive 
that  all  the  suffering  this  war  has  brought,  and  all  the  sacrifices  of 
heroic  lives  it  has  witnessed,  shall  not  have  been  in  vain. 

—  James  Bryce,  Essays  and  Addresses 
in  Wartime,  chap,  v,  p.  183 

Why  then  should  a  State  shrink,  in  the  name  of  "honor,"  from 
giving  guarantees  for  its  rectitude  of  conduct?  Why  should  it 
not  be  willing  to  submit  the  question  of  what  is  honorable,  in  given 
circumstances,  to  those  who  can  fairly  measure  its  aims  and  motives, 
and  await  a  verdict? 

—  David  Jayne  Hill,  World  Organization  as  Affected 
by  the  Nature  of  the  Modern  State,  p.  66 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

CHAPTER   I 

WHY   TEACHERS   SHOULD   STUDY   THE   AIMS 
OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 

A  Message  to  Teachers 

May  I  not  earnestly  suggest  to  you  the  necessity  that  you  should, 
by  study  and  reflection,  acquire  a  deep  spiritual  imderstanding  of 
the  fimdamental  principles  of  our  government,  whereof  our  consti- 
tution is  only  a  single  though  the  chief  expression,  in  order  that  you 
may  be  the  better  able  to  communicate  the  spirit  of  our  institutions 
to  your  pupils.  The  country  must  rely  chiefly  upon  you  to  interpret 
America  to  the  children  of  the  new  generation,  to  make  them  under- 
stand that  it  was  by  the  law  of  its  own  nature  that  this  nation  was 
led  into  the  World  War,  in  order  that  for  all  time  to  come  the  prin- 
ciples which  brought  about  its  own  birth  should  be  made  secure; 
that  it  was  no  new  or  strange  doctrine  which  drew  our  country  into 
association  with  Eiu-opean  nations  in  this  supreme  enterprise,  but 
rather  a  fulfillment  and  extension  of  the  principles  for  which  Wash- 
ington fought,  a  necessary  application,  indeed,  of  those  principles 
to  new  conditions  and  to  an  age  wherein  it  is  no  longer  possible  for 
one  nation  to  live  apart  and  to  itself. 

Under  your  instruction  the  children  should  come  to  see  that  it 
was  the  high  logic  of  events  and  the  providence  of  God  that  the 
United  States  and  Germany,  the  one  the  most  consistent  prac- 
titioner of  the  new  creed  of  mankind,  and  the  other  the  most 
consistent  practitioner  of  the  old,  should  thus  meet  in  battle  to 
determine  whether  the  new  democracy  or  the  old  autocracy  should 
govern  the  world,  and  under  your  instruction  the  children  should  be 
made  to  understand  the  stem  duty  and  the  supreme  privilege  which 
belong  to  the  United  States  of  being  interpreter  to  the  world  of 
those  democratic  principles  which  we  beheve  to  constitute  the  only 
force  which  can  rid  the  world  of  injustice  and  bring  peace  and 
happiness  to  mankind.  The  objects  for  which  this  war  is  being 
waged  with  indescribable  pain  and  sacrifice  cannot  be  kept  secure 
in  the  future  unless  the  children  of  this  new  generation,  for  whose 
sake  the  war  is  in  fact  prosecuted,  themselves  understand  democ- 
racy, not  as  a  mere  word  but  as  a  living  and  vital  thing.  It  is  for 
them  that  the  sacrifice  is  made,  and  by  them  that  the  fruits  of  the 
sacrifice  must  be  gathered  and  safeguarded 


4  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

The  meaning  of  this  war  and  of  America's  part  in  it  is  not  fully 
comprehended  unless  we  understand  the  claims  of  humanity  as  well 
as  of  our  own  country  upon  us.  It  is  our  present  glory  that  we  are 
battling  for  oppressed  humanity  everywhere  as  well  as  for  our  own 
rights,  and  that  America  seeks  no  selfish  ends. 

{Signed)  Woodrow  Wilson 

(Taken  from  a  letter  to  the  teachers  of  America  sent  to  the  Georgia 
Summer. School  at«the  University  of  Georgia  in  1918.) 


The  need  of  understanding  the  aims  of  the  World  War. 

The  teacher  of  to-day  is  facing  a  new  world.  The 
great  war  has  taken  its  heartless  toll  of  lives,  of  national 
resotirces,  and  of  states  and  nations,  and  we  stand  on  the 
wreckage  after  the  storm  facing  an  uncertain  future. 
But  the  obligation  is  laid  upon  the  school  to  help  society 
to  carve  out  a  new  order  for  the  next  generation  that  will 
fulfill  the  expectations  of  those  who  sacrificed  their  lives 
that  the  evil  in  the  old  regime  might  be  destroyed. 

Every  enlightened  nation  on  the  globe  faces  the  same 
problem,  for  all  were  caught  in  the  awftd  tornado  that  has 
just  passed  over  the  world.  Thirty-three  nations  were 
involved  in  it;  twenty-eight  were  actually  engaged  in  war, 
while  five  others  severed  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
Central  Powers.  These  embraced  90  per  cent  of  the 
peoples  of  the  globe  and  about  82  per  cent  of  all  the  land 
area  of  the  earth.  This  war,  therefore,  is  a  part  of  the 
history  of  every  important  nation,  barring  a  number  of 
small  nations  which,  combined,  embrace  less  than  10  per 
cent  of  the  peoples  of  the  world,  scattered  throughout 
Central  Africa,  Central  Asia,  parts  of  South  America  and 
of  Central  America,  and  a  few  of  the  smaller  nations  of 
Europe. 

Whichever  way  we  look  for  light,  we  have  as  our  back- 
ground the  causes  and  immediate  effects  of  the  war,  and 
we  are  projected  into  the  future  from  this  background. 


WHY  STUDY  AIMS  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR  5 

The  causes  and  results  of  the  war,  therefore,  will  be  told 
in  the  histories  of  every  nation,  even  in  those  of  the  10  per 
cent  that  are  not  directly  involved  but  have  been  tremen- 
dously affected  by  it.  Social,  political,  and  ethical  stand- 
ards have  been  so  affected  or  modified  that  instruction  in 
government,  community  civics,  economics,  the  vocations, 
household  arts,  religion,  modem  languages,  science,  art, 
and  literature  will  receive  a  new  treatment  or  a  different 
emphasis  either  in  school  or  out  of  it  as  a  direct  result  of 
the  war. 

The  first  subject,  therefore,  that  teachers  should  study 
is  the  aims  of  the  war.  As  President  Wilson  said  in  his 
message  to  the  teachers  of  America,  "the  country  must 
rely  chiefly  upon  you  to  interpret  America  to  the  children  of 
the  new  generation,  to  make  them  understand  that  it  was 
by  the  law  of  its  own  nature  that  this  nation  was  led  into 
the  World  War"  and  "that  it  is  our  present  glory  that 
we  are  battling  for  oppressed  humanity  everywhere  as  well 
as  for  oiu"  rights,  and  that  America  seeks  no  selfish  ends." 

Government  aids  to  the  study  of  the  war.  The  govern- 
ment, to  aid  the  teachers  in  giving  the  proper  kind  of 
instruction,  has  already  gone  to  large  expense  to  supply 
material  in  logical  sequence,  not  only  for  teachers  but  for 
everybody.  This  material  is  published  in  btdletin  form 
and  is  distributed  free  or  at  a  nominal  cost  in  order  that 
teachers  especially  may  readily  secure  the  necessary  data 
for  an  interpretation  of  the  causes  as  well  as  the  aims  of 
the  war.  (See  Part  IV  for  government  aids  to  the  study 
of  the  war.) 

Every  teachers'  reading  circle  can  arrange  a  cotu-se  in 
modem  European  history  from  these  bulletins.  The 
material  is  at  hand  for  ready  reference.  It  will  be  many 
years,  however,  before  all  this  material  can   be   wisely 


6  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

judged  and  properly  interpreted.  But  the  school  should 
begin  now  to  use  it  and  to  interpret  the  acts  of  this  nation 
in  the  light  of  its  motive  in  entering  the  war.  The  Vir- 
ginia Teachers'  Reading  Circle  made  a  beginning  during 
the  war  and  arranged  the  following  course  selected  from 
these  bulletins: 

The  following  pamphlets  published  by  the  Committee  on  Public 
Information  are  selected  as  one  book  required  on  American  or  Euro- 
pean History: 

(A)  How  the  War  Came  to  America,  Red,  White,  and  Blue  Series, 

No.  I. 

(B)  President's   Flag  Day  Speech,  with  Evidences   of  Germany's 

Plans,  Red,  White,  and  Blue  Series,  No.  4. 

(C)  The  War  Message  and  the  Acts  behind  It,  War  Information 

Series,  No.  101. 

(D)  The  Government  of  Germany,  War  Information  Series,  No.  103. 

The  purpose  of  this  study.  President  Wilson  has  also 
suggested  the  purpose  for  this  study: 

Under  your  instruction  the  children  should  come  to  see  that  it 
was  the  high  logic  of  events  and  the  providence  of  God  that  the 
United  States  and  Germany,  the  one  the  most  consistent  prac- 
titioner of  the  new  creed  of  mankind,  and  the  other  the  most 
consistent  practitioner  of  the  old,  should  thus  meet  in  battle  to 
determine  whether  the  new  democracy  or  the  old  autocracy  should 
govern  the  world,  and  under  your  instruction  the  children  should 
be  made  to  understand  the  stern  duty  and  the  supreme  privilege 
which  belong  to  the  United  States  of  being  interpreter  to  the  world 
of  those  democratic  principles  which  we  believe  to  constitute  the 
only  force  which  can  rid  the  world  of  injustice  and  bring  peace 
and  happiness  to  mankind. 

The  two  antagonistic  forces  in  the  world  are  autocracy 
and  democracy.  The  one  is  exemplified  by  Prussianism 
and  the  other  by  Americanism.  At  the  close  of  the  fourth 
year  of  the  war  Prussianism  and  Americanism  appeared 
at  the  bar  of  public  opinion  in  such  a  striking  contrast 


WHY  STUDY  AIMS  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR  7 

as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  at  least  90  per  cent 
of  the  peoples  of  the  world  as  to  which  mankind  has  sworn 
to  support. 

The  second  subject  for  teachers  to  study  is  the  spirit 
of  freedom  at  work  in  the  world.  We  may  trace  it  in  the 
history  of  every  country  that  has  ever  existed.  We  see 
it  at  work  to-day  in  the  nations  that  have  survived  the 
war,  and  autocracy  seems  to  be  doomed.  We  see  it 
at  work  in  large  industrial  corporations,  and  they  are 
becoming  democratized.  We  see  it  in  educational  insti- 
tutions, and  the  schoolmaster-autocrat  is  passing.  We 
see  it  even  in  the  family,  and  women  are  receiving  equal 
privileges  with  the  men. 

If  autocracy  was  responsible  for  this  war,  it  will  be 
fought  in  every  social  organization.  Teachers  should, 
therefore,  study  the  spirit  of  freedom  at  work  in  our 
social  organizations  in  order  to  understand  the  purpose 
of  democracy  at  work  in  the  w;orld. 

The  third  subject  for  teachers  to  study  is  the  relation 
of  this  spirit  of  freedom  to  classroom  instruction.  What 
must  be  taught  and  how  shall  it  be  taught  in  order 
that  the  youth  of  America  may  be  filled  with  this  new 
spirit  and  led  to  act  in  harmony  with  it  ? 

In  the  first  part  of  the  book,  therefore,  the  spirit  of 
freedom  at  work  in  the  political  world  is  contrasted  with 
autocracy  in  order  that  teachers  may  comprehend  some- 
thing of  its  tremendous  power  in  the  world. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FIRST  FRUITS   OF  AMERICANISM 

The  American's  Creed 

I  believe  in  the  United  States  of  America  as  a  Government  of 
the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  whose  just  powers  are 
derived  from  the  consent  of  the  governed: 

A  Democracy  in  a  Republic; 

A  Sovereign  Nation  of  many  Sovereign  States; 

A  perfect  Union,  one  and  inseparable,  established  upon  those 
principles  of  freedom,  equality,  justice,  and  humanity,  for  which 
American  patriots  sacrificed  their  lives  and  fortunes. 

I,  therefore,  believe  it  my  duty  to  my  country  to  love  it,  to  support 
its  constitution,  to  obey  its  laws,  to  respect  its  flag  and  to  defend 
it  against  all  enemies.  —William  Tyler  Page 

Americanism 

Not  vast  extent  of  territory,  not  great  population,  not  simply 
extraordinary  statistics  of  national  wealth,  although  they  speak  in 
eloquent  words  of  energy  and  managing  ability;  but  what  we  need 
more  than  anything  else  is  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  ideals 
of  democracy.  Those  ideals  are  that  every  man  shall  have  a  fair 
and  equal  chance  according  to  his  talents.  It  is  not  an  ideal  of 
democracy  that  one  alone  shall  emerge  because  of  conspicuous 
ability,  but  there  shall  be  a  great  advance  of  the  plain  people  of  the 
country,  upon  whom  the  prosperity  of  the  country  depends 

Quiet  men,  not  noisy  men;  sensible  men,  not  foolish;  straight 
men,  honest  men,  dependable  men,  real  men — that  is  what  we  mean 
by  Americanism.  —Charles  E.  Hughes 

Americanism.  It  is  the  law  of  his  own  nature  that 
leads  every  man  to  give  expression  to  the  spirit  that 
operates  within,  and  so  it  is  with  a  nation.  This  fact 
accounts  for  Prussianism.  It  accounts  also  for  Ameri- 
canism. Then  what  is  the  law  of  its  own  nature  that  has 
led  America  to  such  an  eminence  in  world  affairs? 

What  was  done  by  the  plain  men  of  the  Colonies  on 
July  4,  1776,  that  the  nations  of  the  world  shotild  pause 


THE  FIRST  FRUITS  OF  AMERICANISM  9 

one  hundred  and  forty-two  years  later  to  commemorate 
their  deeds?  Christians,  Mohammedans,  Buddhists,  Jews, 
all  religions  and  all  races,  the  mightiest  empire  in  the 
world  and  the  weakest  nation  in  the  brotherhood  of 
nations — all,  save  a  small  9  per  cent  that  were  saturated 
with  Prussianism,  glorified  the  day,  and  it  was  proposed 
that  it  be  made  the  Independence  Day  of  the  world. 

Here  are  the  principles  adopted  on  that  date  and  suc- 
cessfully maintained  for  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
years.  -  A  copy  of  them  should  be  hung  in  every  school 
and  interpreted  to  all  children  of  this  country  as  the 
first  fruits  of  Americanism. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident: 
That  all  men  are  created  equal; 
That  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalien. 

able  rights; 
That  among  these  are  life,   liberty,   and   the  pursuit    of 

happiness ; 
That,    to  secure  these  rights,   governments  are  instituted 

among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of 

the  governed; 
That,  whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive 

of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or 

abolish  it. 

But  why  are  they  so  significant  to-day? 

As  one  small  group  of  people  then  declared  itself  free 
and  independent  of  a  government  that  was  destructive 
of  these  unalienable  rights,  so  the  world  to-day  has  de- 
clared itself  free  and  independent  of  a  great  autocracy 
that  is  destructive  of  these  same  ends. 

How  the  world  was  governed  in  1776.  These  principles 
can  be  more  ftdly  grasped  if  we  make  a  survey  of  govern- 
ment in  Etu"ope  as  it  was  in  1776.  What  was  the  lot  of 
the  peoples  of  the  world  then?    Each  nation  was  ruled 


10  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

by  a  small  but  privileged  class  of  autocrats.  The  great 
mass  of  people  of  Europe  was  in  actual  servitude,  and 
their  liberties  were  so  restricted  and  their  living  conditions 
such  that  their  lot  was  little  above  the  common  lot  of  serfs. 
With  no  voice  in  making  or  executing  the  laws,  they  were 
liable  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  venal  officers  and  sxiffer 
indignities  at  the  hands  of  rulers  who  governed  by  divine 
right.  With  no  vote  in  lev5dng  taxes,  they  were  so  bur- 
dened by  enormous  rates  that,  as  a  rule,  they  could  not 
hope  to  bmld  a  competence  for  themselves  or  their  chil- 
dren. With  little  or  no  opportimity  to  own  the  land  they 
worked,  they  were  compelled  to  live  on  the  lord's  land  in 
miserable,  unsanitary  huts  and  give  the  results  of  their 
labors  to  support  his  idle  cotirt.  With  no  hope  of  that 
larger  freedom  that  the  privileged  classes  enjoyed,  they 
were  compelled  to  support  standing  armies  and  to  sacri- 
fice their  lives  if  need  be  in  the  defense  of  the  privileged 
autocrats  and  to  enslave  the  common  people  of  other 
lands. 

Having  been  taught  for  ages  that  they  were  inferior 
beings,  and  being  actually  oppressed  with  the  sense  of 
their  own  inferiority,  they  could  find  scarcely  a  man 
among  them  so  bold  as  to  make  a  loud  protest  against 
these  ancient  abuses,  imtil  near  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Then  it  was  that  the  number  of  those 
appealing  to  heaven  for  justice  made  polite  Europe 
hearken  "to  strange  voices  and  faint  reverberations  from 
out  of  the  vague  and  cavernous  shadows  in  which  the 
common  people  moved."  ^ 

A  study  of  how  the  nations  of  the  world  were  governed 
in  1776  and  of  the  extent  to  which  the  people  were  con- 
sulted would  be  a  profitable  topic  for  all  teachers.  The 
practices  of  the  governments  of  Europe  as  they  existed 

*  Morley,  Lije  of  Rousseau. 


THE  FIRST  FRUITS  OF  AMERICANISM  n 

in  1776  should  be  contrasted,  moreover,  with  the  ideals 
set  forth  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
The  origin  of  the  doctrines  found  in  the  Declaration. 

The  doctrines  set  forth  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
however,  were  not  new  in  1 7  7  6 .  They  were  not  discovered 
by  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  High- 
school  teachers,  therefore,  who  give  instruction  in  Euro- 
pean history  should  trace  the  rise  of  liberty  in  the  world 
and  the  attempts  of  the  people  to  participate  in  their 
own  government.  The  Magna  Charta,  the  House  of 
Commons,  the  Petition  of  Rights,  the  Bill  of  Rights,  are 
monuments  in  English  political  history  that  led  the  people 
toward  freedom. 

The  American  patriots  of  1776  merely  reasserted  what 
many  earnest  men  had  declared  in  every  age,  that  spirit- 
ual forces  are  greater  than  material  forces,  that  human 
rights  are  superior  to  material  rights,  and  that  in  the 
final  estimate  of  a  himian  soul  its  worth  is  not  determined 
by  material  limitations,  but  by  service — not  by  its 
starting  point,  but  by  its  attainments. 

The  second  stage  in  the  growth  of  Americanism.  The 
second  chapter  in  the  growth  of  Americanism  comprises 
the  adoption  of  the  federal  Constitution  (1789)  and  the 
first  ten  amendments  in  1791,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
'  clearly  set  forth  in  the  preamble : 

To  form  a  more  perfect  union. 

To  establish  justice, 

To  insure  domestic  tranquillity, 

To  provide  for  the  common  defense. 

To  promote  the  general  welfare. 

To  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our 
posterity. 

A  copy  of  the  preamble  likewise  should  be  framed  and 


12        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

hting  in  every  schoolroom  in  America  in  order  that  it 
may  serve  as  a  guide  to  teachers  of  American  history 
and  to  all  executives  who  direct  the  administration  of 
the  school,  since  it  set  a  new  standard  in  government  by 
attempting  to  make  the  governors  and  the  governed  one 
and  the  same.  It  declared  to  the  world  that  this  nation 
would  not  set  apart  a  special  class  to  be  known  as  the 
governors  and  another  class  to  be  known  as  the  gov- 
erned, but  that  all  classes  were  on  the  same  plane  polit- 
ically. 

A  government  was  organized  whereby  the  appointed 
governors  and  the  governed  sought  to  preserve  the 
liberties  of  all  and  to  promote  the  welfare  of  all.  The 
governors  and  the  governed  had  the  same  aim. 

What,  therefore,  is  a  charter,  or  a  constitution?  Why 
is  it  so  sacred  that  when  one  nation  speaks  contemptu- 
ously of  a  contract  or  an  agreement  as  a  mere  scrap  of 
paper,  the  nations  of  the  world  draw  their  swords  in  its 
defense?  Teachers  should  make  a  study  of  a  charter  and 
a  constitution  in  order  to  be  able  to  answer  this  question. 
Should  the  aim  of  every  charter  or  constitution  be  the 
same  as  that  set  forth  in  the  preamble  to  the  Constitution  ? 

How  the  nations  of  the  world  were  affected  by  the 
spirit  of  freedom.  The  spirit  of  freedom  incorporated 
first  in  the  new  republic  of  the  western  continent  soon 
found  its  devotees  among  the  peoples  of  the  monarchical 
nations  of  Europe,  where  it  had  been  slumbering  for  ages. 

France,  the  home  of  Lafayette,  was  a  storm  center. 
A  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  American  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  pro- 
mulgated. The  old  monarchy  was  destroyed,  the  first 
French  Republic  was  bom,  and  all  Europe  stood  aghast 
at  the  terror  that  raged  through  the  monarchical  countries. 


THE  FIRST  FRUITS   OF   AMERICANISM  13 

Liberal  England,  which  had  once  put  to  death  a  king 
for  his  conscienceless  absolutism,  now  fought  against  the 
autocratic  power  of  George  III,  and  after  the  loss  of  the 
American  colonies  emerged  a  more  democratic  nation  and 
began  its  glorious  march  toward  a  democracy. 

The  history  of  brave  Belgium  records  at  this  time  a  new 
era  of  freedom  for  the  people  of  that  nation. 

Proud  Spain  felt  the  hard  impact  of  this  democratic 
protest,  and '  one  by  one  her  colonies  in  North  and  in 
South  America,  moved  by  this  modem  spirit,  followed  the 
example  of  the  thirteen  English  colonies,  shook  off 
imperialism,  and  emerged  each  in  its  own  way  a  more 
democratic  nation. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  which  had  imposed  its  form 
upon  the  greater  part  of  Western  Europe  since  the  days 
of  Charlemagne,  fell  to  pieces  in  this  era,  and  Prussia  and 
the  other  German  principalities  freed  from  imperialism 
were  affected  by  the  reasonableness  of  this  democratic 
spirit. 

Austria,  the  proud  citadel  of  imperialism,  composed 
of  a  group  of  races  that  threatened  the  disintegration  of 
this  ancient  center  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  felt  the 
thrill  of  the  spirit  of  freedom  that  was  now  at  v/ork  every- 
where. 

•  The  vast  domain  of  the  Russian  Empire  shook  off  much 
of  its  medieval  tyranny  when  Napoleon  jarred  the  world, 
and  the  outlines  of  a  modem  Russia  began  to  take  shape 
at  the  close  of  the  European  wars. 

Italian  cities  and  states  that  had  been  the  football  of 
imperialism  since  the  downfall  of  the  Cassars  now  dreamed 
of  a  new  nation  and  saw  signs  of  a  new  freedom. 

This  spirit  of  liberty  was  at  work  in  every  European 
nation.     Every  king  trembled  on  his  throne,  and  every 


14  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

special  privileged  class,  frightened,  stood  at  Pentecost  to 
answer  the  world-old  question,  "Am  I  my  brother's 
keeper?" 

The  most  masterful  man  of  the  age,  one  of  the  greatest 
autocrats  in  modem  history,  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
But  by  a  coalition  of  the  nations  of  the  world  against  him 
he  was  overthrown,  and  then  the  nations  came  together 
in  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  to  take  a  new  inven- 
tory of  Evirope  and  to  mark  out  future  lines  for  the  growth 
of  the  peoples  of  every  nation. 

Democracy  and  autocracy  had  come  definitely  before 
the  bar  of  public  opinion.  But  democracy  was  con- 
demned at  Vienna,  and  the  futiu-e  peace  of  the  world 
was  thus  endangered. 


CHAPTER  III 

HOW  FREEDOM  WAS  PRESERVED  IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES 

Americanism 

_  I  do  most  earnestly  wish  to  see  the  highest  degree  of  education 
given  to  the  highest  degree  of  genius,  and  all  degrees  of  it,  so  much 
as  may  enable  them  to  read  and  understand  what  is  going  on  in  the 
world  and  to  keep  their  part  of  it  going  on  right. 

— Thomas  Jefferson 

Let  our  object  be,  our  coimtry,  our  whole  country,  and  nothing 
but  our  country.  And,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  may  that  country 
itself  become  a  vast  and  splendid  monument,  not  of  oppression  and 
terror,  but  of  Wisdom,  of  Peace,  and  of  Liberty,  upon  which  the 
world  may  gaze  with  admiration  forever! 

— Daniel  Webster 

Let  us  go  to  the  limpid  fountain  of  unadulterated  patriotism,  and, 
performing  a  solemn  lustration,  return  divested  of  all  selfish,  sinister, 
and  sordid  impurities,  and  think  alone  of  our  God,  our  country,  otu- 
consciences,  and  our  glorious  Union,  that  Union  without  which  we 
shall  be  torn  into  hostile  fragments,  and  sooner  or  later  become  the 
victims  of  military  despotism,  or  foreign  domination. 

— Henry  Clay 

Undoubtedly  the  highest  function  of  statesmanship  is  by  degrees 
to  accommodate  the  conduct  of  communities  to  ethical  laws,  and 
to  subordinate  the  conflicting  self-interests  of  the  day  to  higher  and 
more  permanent  concerns.  But  it  is  on  the  understanding,  and  not 
on  the  sentiment,  of  a  nation  that  all  safe  legislation  must  be  based. 

— James  Russell  Lowell 

What  are  the  favorite  maxims  of  democracy?  A  strict  observance 
of  justice  and  public  faith,  and  a  steady  adherence  to  virtue.  These, 
sir,  are  the  principles  of  a  good  government.  No  mischief,  no  mis- 
fortiine,  ought  to  deter  us  from  a  strict  observance  of  justice  and 
public  faith.  —John  Marshall 

Every  citizen  an  acting  member  of  the  government. 

The  Constitution  was  simply  a  written  guaranty  that  the 

15 


1 6  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY       - 

people  of  the  new  republic  would  honestly  strive  to  pre- 
serve freedom  and  equality  of  opportunity  for  all  men. 
Other  governments,  however,  had  given  guaranties  to 
preserve  freedom,  but  had  failed.  The  fact  that  America 
was  able  to  maintain  the  principle  that  all  just  govern- 
ment rests  upon  the  consent  of  the  governed,  in  spite  of 
mistakes  and  in  spite  of  foreign  interference,  gave  it  its 
highest  claim  to  world  fame  on  July  4,  19 18. 

How  liberty  was  preserved  in  America.  But  how  can 
the  blessing  of  liberty  be  preserved?  It  was  Thomas 
Jefferson  who  gave  the  answer.  "  Make,"  he  said,  "  every 
citizen  an  acting  member  of  the  government."  This  was 
an  unattempted  aim  in  the  world  at  that  time,  but  it  is 
fundamental  to-day,  and  all  leaders,  or  those  who  hope 
to  become  leaders,  in  a  democracy  would  do  well  to  bear 
it  in  mind,  especially  all  educational  leaders  whose  dream 
it  is  to  make  the  school  the  community  center. 

"Every  citizen  an  acting  member  of  the  government" 
is  a  good  motto  for  any  school  or  any  other  organization. 
It  is  the  essence  of  Americanism.  But  how  can  every 
citizen  become  an  acting  member  of  the  government? 

I.  By  suhdimsion  of  duties.  Again  it  was  Thomas 
Jefferson  who  answered  this  question:  "It  is  by  division 
and  subdivision  of  duties  alone,  that  all  matters  great  and 
small  can  be  managed  to  perfection.  And  the  whole  is 
cemented  by  giving  to  every  citizen  personally  a  part  in 
the  administration  of  public  affairs." 

The  piupose,  therefore,  of  the  federal  Constitution, 
state  constitutions,  city  charters,  etc.,  is  to  subdivide 
duties  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  as  far  as  possible  to  every 
citizen  personally  a  part  in  the  administration  of  public 
affairs.  We  have,  therefore,  the  duties  of  government 
thus  apportioned:     (i)  the  federal  government  for  all 


HOW  FREEDOM  WAS  PRESERVED  17 

matters  that  concern  foreign  affairs  or  that  pertain  to  the 
welfare  of  the  people  as  a  whole;  (2)  the  state  government 
for  what  relates  to  the  citizens  of  the  state  exclusively; 
(3)  county  government  for  the  duties  and  concerns  of 
the  county;  and  (4)  town  or  district  government  for  the 
nimierous  and  vital  concerns  of  the  neighborhood. 

Community  clubs  are,  therefore,  very  valuable  if  they 
seek  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  people  of  a  com- 
munity in  civic  or  commtinity  progress. 

The  strength  of  the  American  government  lies  in  the 
individual  communities — in  the  freedom,  the  character, 
the  intelligence,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  individuals  that 
make  up  each  community.  Hence  teachers  everywhere 
should  be  conscious  of  the  fact  that,  when  they  are  enlist- 
ing the  aid  of  every  citizen  in  the  community,  they  are 
not  only  helping  to  build  a  community,  but  are  helping 
to  build  the  nation  as  well.  It  is  the  people  who  select, 
directly  or  indirectly,  all  the  officials  of  the  county,  the 
state,  and  the  nation,  establish  schools,  promote  all  inter- 
nal improvements,  establish  justice,  secure  domestic 
tranquillity,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity.  Such 
is  the  meaning  of  "the  consent  of  the  governed." 

No  other  nation  in  the  world  was  ever  so  dependent 
upon  the  character  and  intelUgence  of  the  individual 
members  of  the  community  as  the  United  States.  The 
strength  of  an  absolute  monarchy  depends  primarily 
upon  the  strength  of  the  ruling  class,  but  the  strength  of 
a  democracy  depends  upon  the  character  and  strength 
of  each  individual  imit. 

2.  By  a  free  public-school  system.  A  school  system  fit 
for  a  democracy  had  to  be  established  in  order  to  carry 
out  the  high  ptirpose  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 

; 


18  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

and  the  Constitution.  Democracy  has  in  view  first  a 
better  citizenship.  Three  years  after  independence  was 
declared,  therefore,  the  author  of  the  Declaration,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  gave  to  his  native  state  the  outline  of  such 
a  system.  The  ideals  of  the  school  and  of  the  nation 
were  to  be  one  and  the  same.  As  the  nation  was  divided 
and  subdivided,  so  the  educational  system  was  planned 
to  parallel  it — a  school  for  each  district,  a  high  school  for 
a  county  or  a  group  of  counties,  a  college  and  university 
for  the  state  and  nation — one  system  supported  "at  the 
common  expense  of  all"  and  free  to  all  people,  "without 
regard  to  wealth,  birth,  or  other  accidental  condition  or 
circtmistances." 

No  other  nation  had  ever  conceived  such  a  system,  and 
to-day  it  has  no  parallel  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 
Such  a  system  in  Europe  was  impossible  because  society 
was  so  organized  and  so  governed  in  the  monarchical 
nations  of  the  world  that  the  rulers  could  not  think  in 
terms  of  such  a  system.  Education  in  Europe  was  for 
the  classes,  not  for  the  masses. 

It  was  nearly  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
however,  before  even  the  outlines  of  this  democratic 
educational  system  began  to  take  definite  shape  even  in 
America,  and  nearly  the  twentieth  century  before  the 
system  was  completed.  America  was  working  alone  at 
the  problem. 

Social  institutions  are  slow  in  developing.  Sometimes 
it  takes  a  century  or  more  for  them  to  reach  maturity. 
The  American  system  is  not  a  century  old.  It  is  very 
inadequate  in  all  the  states  even  to-day,  in  some  more  than 
in  others.  But,  notwithstanding  its  defects,  it  is  the 
agency  ttiat  has  aided  the  nation  in  its  growth  toward 
democracy,    and    it   helped  to  bring  America  to  that 


HOW  FREEDOM  WAS  PRESERVED  19 

eminence  on  July  4,  19 18,  when  all  the  great  nations  of 
the  world,  two  excepted,  paid  their  tributes  to  the 
wisdom  of  its  founders  and  builders. 

Teachers  should  study  the  history  of  education  in 
America  since  the  establishment  of  this  democratic  sys- 
tem. What  has  been  its  ptirpose  ?  How  has  it  sought  to 
include  all  the  children  of  all  the  people — the  poor  and 
the  rich,  the  humble  and  the  aristocratic?  To  what 
extent  has  it  raised  the  character  and  intelligence  and 
industry  of  all  citizens?  Has  it  kept  alive  and  nourished 
the  true  American  spirit  by  making  its  citizens,  both 
native  and  foreign  born,  fit  to  become  acting  members 
in  the  government  ? 

3.  By  granting  citizenship  to  people  of  all  nationalities. 
In  the  first  place,  the  broad  principles  were  laid  down  that 
all  who  came  to  America  from  any  other  enlightened 
nation  should  have  citizenship  on  equal  terms  with 
American  citizens,  and,  since  the  government  rests  upon 
the  consent  of  the  governed,  they  too  were  given  equal 
rights  and  made  partakers  in  and  of  the  government,  and 
every  office  was  open  to  them  save  two — those  of  presi- 
dent and  vice-president. 

It  was  this  act  especially  that  taught  the  oppressed  of 
every  land  the  blessings  of  liberty  and  helped  to  sow  the 
seeds  of  democracy  throughout  the  world.  Other  nations 
had  offered  their  countries  as  places  of  refuge,  but  it  was 
America  that  gave  her  immigrants  a  permanent  home 
and  made  them  partners  in  the  government. 

The  wisdom  of  this  act  is  proved  by  the  single  fact  that 
untold  numbers  of  obscure  foreigners  have  left  their  native 
countries,  have  come  to  America,  and  have  achieved  dis- 
tinction and  even  world-wide  fame  under  the  stimulating 
influence  of  liberty  and  equality  of  opportunity.     Any 


20  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

foreigner  whatsoever  who  abuses  this  trust  is  certainly 
not  worthy  of  the  citizenship  of  a  free  country. 

4.  By  the  growth  of  its  own  nature.  The  self-evident 
truths  expressed  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
purposes  of  government  as  outlined  in  the  preamble  of  the 
Constitution,  the  organization  of  a  nation  in  accordance 
with  these  principles,  and  a  public-school  system  to  per- 
petuate these  principles,  all  produced  a  nation  that  was 
unique  in  the  world  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  and  admired  by  all  except  the  Central  Powers. 
But  what  are  the  outstanding  achievements  of  these 
principles  at  work  in  the  nation? 

a)  The  Monroe  Doctrine  that  guarantees  the  growth 
of  republican  government  in  the  western  continent. 

6)  The  extension  of  suffrage  in  order  to  increase  the 
number  of  citizens  who  may  become  active  members  of 
the  government. 

c)  Abolition  of  involuntary  servitude. 

d)  The  growth  of  the  rights  of  laboring  people  and  the 
extension  of  the  privilege  of  the  consent  of  the  governed 
to  large  industries. 

e)  The  protection  of  the  weak  from  the  ruthlessness  of 
the  strong  and  the  safeguarding  of  life  and  htunan  welfare, 
thus  keeping  before  all  people  the  principle  that  right 
and  justice  must  prevail  in  all  human  intercourse. 

/)  The  maintenance  of  a  policy  with  all  nations,  both 
great  and  small,  in  harmony  with  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  Constitution,  that  liberty  may  be 
preserved  in  the  world  and  right  and  justice  prevail  in 
all  international  relationships. 

Teachers  should  study  the  deeper  purpose  of  our 
government  in  order  to  trace  the  growth  of  freedom  in 
America,  showing  where  at  times  our  leaders  departed 


HOW  FREEDOM  WAS  PRESERVED  21 

from  the  straight  and  narrow  path,  but  how  over  and  over 
again  the  nation  was  brought  back  and  started  anew 
toward  the  goal  that  free  people  of  all  lands  hold  as  an 
ideal  for  the  race. 

The  youth  of  America  need  such  a  study  to  give  them 
a  standard  by  which  to  measure  conduct — the  conduct  of 
public  officials  as  well  as  of  individuals. 

But  suppose  we  examine  more  in  detail  into  America's 
foreign  policy,  since  it  is  admitted  to-day  that  a  nation's 
standard  should  not  be  lower  than  that  of  its  individual 
citizens  in  their  personal  relations  one  with  another. 

5.  By  a  just  foreign  policy.  George  Washington  in  his 
Farewell  Address  laid  down  this  principle  for  the  guidance 
of  ovix  nation  in  its  dealings  with  foreign  countries: 
"Observe  good  faith  and  justice  toward  all  nations." 

This  is  another  good  motto  for  the  school.  But  how 
has  this  principle  been  observed  in  history? 

a)  Arbitration  instead  of  war:  The  most  important 
way,  perhaps,  in  which  America  has  endeavored  to  observe 
good  faith  and  justice  is  by  its  willingness  and  readiness 
to  settle  disputes  by  arbitration  rather  than  by  war. 

"The  first  treaty  of  modem  times  which  provided  for 
arbitration  was  the  so  called  Jay  Treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  1794  ....  that  pro- 
vided that  a  number  of  points  should  be  referred  to  com- 
missioners ....  and  from  the  date  of  the  Jay  Treaty  up 
to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  216  cases  have  been 
arbitrated."^  Several  such  cases  have  been  matters  of 
great  importance. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  this  country  was 
engaged  in  an  attempt  to  have  all  nations  agree  to  settle 
all  their  disputes  by  arbitration  rather  than  by  war. 

1  Tvift,  The  Real  Business  of  Living. 


22  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

b)  Monroe  Doctrine:  During  the  first  half-century  of 
our  independence  the  absolute  monarchies  of  Europe 
sought  to  restrict  freedom  in  America  and  the  growth  of 
republican  governments  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  It 
appeared,  therefore,  that  democracy  must  again  draw 
the  sword  and  fight  for  its  very  existence.  It  was  Great 
Britain  (and  Americans  should  never  forget  the  fact)  that 
aided  this  nation  in  so  stating  the  rule  of  this  continent 
that  European  autocracy  was  forced  to  respect  the  new 
democratic  nation.  This  new  rule  of  freedom  is  known 
as  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  the  promulgation  of  which  (1823) 
checked  the  growth  of  political  autocracy  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere  and  set  it  apart  as  the  home  of  democracy. 

c)  Foreign  wars:  In  the  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
years  of  this  country's  history  America  has  waged  no  war 
against  its  neighboring  republics  save  in  one  instance, 
and  since  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (18 15),  a  period  of  over 
a  hundred  years,  it  has  waged  no  war,  with  perhaps  one 
exception,  that  was  not  conducted  in  the  interest  of  social 
welfare  and  himian  freedom.  That  one,  if  it  is  an  excep- 
tion, was  the  Mexican  War  of  the  40's. 

The  next  foreign  controversy  of  importance  in  which  a 
show  of  force  was  used  was  against  Japan  in  1861,  when 
foreigners  were  murdered  and  the  American  flag  was 
insulted.  As  a  result  Japan  was  forced  to  pay  an  indem- 
nity to  the  nations  injured.  But  some  years  later  Amer- 
ica, in  the  name  of  justice  and  fair  play,  returned  the 
amount  with  interest — the  first  example  in  history,  per- 
haps, of  a  nation  showing  to  the  world  that  it  would  not 
seek  material  advantage  at  the  expense  of  other  nations. 

In  the  name  of  human  brotherhood  America  struck 
down  the  tyrant's  hand  in  Cuba  and  gave  to  the  world 
a  new  nation — an  unprecedented  act  in  history. 


HOW  FREEDOM  WAS  PRESERVED  23 

In  the  name  of  htimanity  American  armies  entered 
China  to  put  an  end  to  the  Boxer  uprising.  But  instead 
of  exacting  indemnities  as  other  nations  did,  this  govern- 
ment turned  back  to  China,  for  the  education  of  the 
Chinese  youth,  the  sum.  apportioned  to  her  by  the  peace 
council — an  unparalleled  act  in  history. 

d)  International  fairness :  In  the  name  of  international 
fairness  and  good  will  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
after  it  had  enacted  a  law  governing  the  Panama  tolls, 
reversed  itself  voluntarily  when  it  was  made  clear  that 
the  nations  of  the  world  thought  America  was  not  keeping 
faith  in  the  observance  of  an  old  treaty,  although  its 
words  were  ambiguous  and  susceptible  of  more  than  one 
interpretation.  But,  as  President  Wilson  declared,  "we 
are  too  self-respecting  a  nation  to  interpret  with  a  too 
strained  or  refined  reading  the  words  of  our  promises 
just  because  we  have  power  enough  to  give  us  leave  to 
read  them  as  we  please  "  ^ — a  new  standard  for  the  nations 
of  the  world. 

e)  Going  to  war  as  a  last  resort :  When  the  liberties  of 
the  people  were  threatened  by  Prussianism  and  it  began 
to  appear  as  a  certainty  that  autocracy,  personified  in  the 
rulers  of  the  Imperial  German  Government,  had  set  out 
to  destroy  liberty  in  the  world.  President  Wilson,  the 
Chief  Executive  of  the  greatest  democracy  in  the  world, 
appeared  before  Congress,  April  2,  19 17,  and,  responding 
to  the  simimons,  uttered  these  words:  "The  right  is 
more  precious  than  peace,  and  we  shall  fight  for  the  things 
which  we  have  always  carried  nearest  our  hearts — for 
democracy,  for  the  right  of  those  who  submit  to  authority 
to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  governments,  for  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  small  nations,  for  a  universal  dominion 

^Brooks,  Woodrow  Wilson  as  President, 


24        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  right  by  such  a  concert  of  free  peoples  as  shall  bring 
peace  and  safety  to  all  nations  and  make  the  worid  itself 
at  last  free."^ 

Such  is  Americanism  found  at  its  best  in  America's 
dealings  with  the  other  nations  of  the  world.  This  spirit 
should  find  a  place  in  every  school  in  this  land. 

The  growth  of  right  and  justice  in  American  govern- 
ment. In  teaching  American  history,  therefore,  instruc- 
tors should  ever  keep  in  mind  the  purposes  of  government 
as  expressed  in  the  preamble  to  the  Constitution,  and  in 
the  development  of  each  new  topic  pupils  should  be  led 
to  answer  these  questions: 

Did  it  establish  justice?  or 

Did  it  insure  domestic  tranquillity?  or 

Did  it  provide  for  the  common  defense  ?  or 

Did  it  promote  general  welfare?  or 

Did  it  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty? 

If  it  did  none  of  these  things,  or  if  it  violated  even  one 
of  these  principles,  how  far  did  the  people  depart  from 
the  ways  of  a  just  government? 

This  same  standard  may  be  used  to-day  in  judging  the 
value  of  local,  state,  or  national  policies  and  the  conduct 
of  public  men.  Even  the  purpose  of  the  school  may  be 
measured  by  it. 

^From  address  to  Congress,  April  2,  191 7. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PRUSSIANISM,   OR  HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS 
PRESERVED  IN  THE  WORLD 

Prussianism 

The  Prince  is  to  the  nation  he  governs  what  the  head  is  to  the 
man;  it  is  his  duty  to  see,  think,  and  act  for  the  whole  community, 
that  he  may  procure  it  every  advantage  of  which  it  is  capable. 

— Frederick  II  of  Prussia 

Statesmanship  can  be  reduced  to  these  principles:  First,  to  main- 
tain your  power,  and  according  to  circumstances,  to  extend  it; 
Second,  to  form  an  alliance  only  for  your  own  advantage;  Third,  to 
command  fear  and  respect  even  in  the  most  disastrous  times. 

— Frederick  II  of  Prussia 

You  have  given  yourselves  to  me  body  and  soul;  for  you,  there 
is  only  one  enemy  and  that  is  my  enemy.  It  may  happen — I  pray 
God  avert  it — that  I  order  you  to  shoot  down  your  mothers,  your 
brothers,  nay  your  parents,  but  then  without  a  murmur  you  must 
obey  my  commands. 

— William  II,  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  his  soldiers 

From  childhood  I  have  been  under  the  influence  of  five  men, 
Alexander,  JuUus  Caesar,  Theodoric  Second,  Frederick  the  Great, 
Napoleon.  Each  of  these  men  dreamed  a  dream  of  world  empire — 
they  failed.  I  am  dreaming  a  dream  of  German  World  Empire  — 
and  my  mailed  fist  shall  succeed. 

— Explanation  of  Kaiser  at  Conference  "The  Pan-German 

Empire,"  Potsdam  Palace 

Two  roads  before  the  nations  of  the  world.     In  the 

reconstruction  of  Europe  after  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1815)  two  roads  lay  open  to  the  nations,  one  leading 
to  democracy,  the  other  to  autocracy.  The  former  was 
still  somewhat  vague  and  the  end  much  too  uncertain. 
The  latter  was  well  known  and  had  been  practiced  for 
ages  and  maintained  by  armed  force.    Austria,  under  the 

25 


26  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

leadership  of  Prince  Mettemich,  who  had  dominated  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  therefore  led  the  reactionary  forces 
against  democracy,  and  again  autocracy  was  glorified 
by  the  monarchical  rulers  of  Europe.  But  this  was  to 
be  the  last  time.  The  spirit  of  freedom  was  challenging 
the  rule  of  autocracy.  A  new  road  to  freedom  was  being 
hewn  out  by  the  people  of  the  world,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  the  world's  history  democracy  was  strong  enough 
to  challenge  boldly  the  authority  of  autocracy,  with  the 
results  outlined  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  many 
nations,  especially  England,  began  at  once  to  hearken 
to  the  call  of  humanity. 

One  nation,  however,  that  emerged  from  that  revolution 
to  impress  itself  upon  the  world  and  to  choose  autocracy 
rather  than  democracy  was  Prussia.  Although  her  rulers 
had  relied  upon  the  sword  for  self-preservation,  and  her 
people  were  trained  to  believe  that  warfare  was  the  great- 
est profession,  the  spirit  of  freedom  was  also  at  work  in 
that  nation,  as  it  was  in  every  other  civilized  country. 

The  four  decades  from  1830  to  1870  saw  a  wonderful 
change  take  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Man- 
hood suffrage  was  enlarged.  Humanitarianism  began  to 
rise  above  materialism  and  individual  isolation.  Himian 
slavery  was  abolished,  and,  in  spite  of  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  and  the  powerful  influence  of  Prince  Mettemich, 
the  world  was  moving  slowly  along  this  new  highway  to 
greater  freedom  for  the  masses.  But  the  old  autocrats 
were  too  reactionary  and  too  contemptuous  to  give  even 
right  and  justice  a  hearing.  By  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury, therefore,  nearly  every  nation  of  Europe  was  again 
in  the  throes  of  a  revolution. 

Democracy  and  autocracy  again  on  trial.  Democ- 
racy and  autocracy  had  again  come  before  the  bar  of 


HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS  PRESERVED  27 

public  opinion.  When  the  hour  struck  in  1848,  nearly 
half  the  monarchs  of  Europe  had  within  a  few  months 
been  either  deposed  or  forced  to  concede  constitutions 
guaranteeing  to  the  people  liberty  and  right  and  justice 
in  government. 

This  was  the  second  great  call  to  the  nations  of  the  world 
to  decide  which  path  the  governments  would  follow — 
that  leading  to  democracy  or  that  leading  to  autocracy. 
This  time  the  handwriting  was  unmistakable.  It  now 
became  a  fixed  policy  of  the  leading  nations  to  secure  the 
blessings  of  liberty  to  all  people  and  to  provide  for  the 
common  welfare.  Prussia  was  the  conspicuous  excep- 
tion. Wars  had  been  the  chief  occupation  of  rulers. 
To  wage  a  successful  war  had  been  the  chief  function  of 
government  —  to  enslave  other  people,  to  make  other 
countries  contribute  to  its  wealth  and  splendor  and 
power,  not  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  for  the 
people  of  the  world. 

But  at  this  time  the  nations  had  to  decide  again  which 
they  would  serve,  autocracy  or  democracy,  and  the 
Prussian  rulers  chose  autocracy.  The  German  people, 
however,  notwithstanding  their  long  history  of  acquies- 
cence under  the  rule  of  autocracy,  did  not  submit  without 
a  struggle.  They  now  clamored  for  a  constitution  and 
for  more  freedom.  But  they  were  defeated  after  much 
bloodshed,  and  many  patriotic  Germans  turned  their 
backs  on  Prussian  autocracy  and  came  to  America,  pre- 
ferring to  abandon  their  own  country  for  a  home  in  a  new 
nation  where  the  spirit  of  freedom  was  protected,  rather 
than  submit  to  the  authority  of  such  a  government. 
Many  of  America's  patriotic  leaders  in  the  late  war  for 
world  freedom  were  either  those  political  refugees  or  their 
descendants. 


28  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

But  in  Prussia  autocracy  tritimphed  and  was  again  able 
in  1850  to  reassert  the  "divine  right  of  the  monarch  to 
reign  at  the  head  of  the  army,  the  church,  and  the  whole 
civil  government."  The  success  of  Prussian  arms  was 
all  the  proof  needed  by  those  autocratic  rulers  for  their 
authority,  and  within  two  more  decades  Prussia  became, 
perhaps,  the  most  efficient  military  power  in  Europe. 

The  nations  had  at  last  come  definitely  to  the  parting 
of  the  ways.  One  group  was  following  the  lead  of  Amer- 
ica. Another  was  following  autocratic  Prussia,  and  in 
19 14  these  two  groups  of  nations  came  again  to  judgment 
with  the  result  already  known. 

How  Prussianism  acquired  its  power.  But  how  did 
Prussianism  acquire  so  much  power?  How  was  the 
spirit  of  democracy  curbed  and  the  divine  right  of  the 
autocrat  made  a  part  of  Prussian  religion? 

I.  The  government  of  Germany.  The  ideals  of  a  people 
find  expression  sooner  or  later  in  their  forms  of  govern- 
ment. Education  being  "the  organization  of  acquired 
habits  of  conduct  and  tendencies  to  behavior,"  it  is  not  a 
very  difficult  task  for  a  set  of  strong  rulers  to  give  direction 
to  the  tendencies  of  a  people  and  then  habituate  them  to 
ways  of  living  in  harmony  with  the  adopted  ideals.  How- 
ever, if  freedom  is  denied  and  the  fimdamental  principles 
of  right  and  justice  are  generally  violated,  no  amoimt  of 
autocracy  can  keep  the  spirit  of  divinity  within  the  human 
soul  from  voicing  a  protest.  The  history  of  the  peasant 
uprisings  and  of  revolutions  is  evidence  of  this  fact. 

A  study  of  the  government  of  Germany,  therefore,  is 
essential  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  habits  of  the 
German  people  who  have  fought  from  time  to  time  against 
the  growing  autocracy  in  their  government.  In  the  first 
place,  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 


HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS  PRESERVED  29 

World  War,  was  the  absolute  head  of  the  Imperial  German 
Government  and  king  of  Prussia.  He  appointed  all 
executives  of  the  Empire,  and  they  were  responsible  to 
him  alone.  The  executive  authority  was  vested  in  two 
bodies:  (i)  the  military,  or  the  General  Staff,  which 
controlled  the  army  and  the  navy  and  was  the  most 
powerful  body  in  the  Empire;  (2)  the  civic,  with  the 
Imperial  Chancellor  and  the  many  secretaries  of  state, 
which  of  course  controlled  internal  policies  and  all  for- 
eign relations.  But  the  civic  was  so  thoroughly  under 
the  domination  of  the  military  that  it  was  almost  a  sub- 
ordinate department. 

The  legislative  authority  of  the  Empire  was  vested  in 
two  bodies:  the  Bundesrat  and  the  Reichstag.  The 
Bundesrat,  or  the  House  of  Lords,  was  composed  of 
sixty-one  members,  but  the  Emperor  appointed  twenty, 
while  the  hereditary  princes  of  the  other  German  states 
appointed  the  remainder.  None  was  elected  by  the 
people.  The  Reichstag,  or  the  House  of  Commons,  was 
a  representative  body,  but  all  of  its  acts  were  approved 
by  the  Bundesrat. 

Even  the  internal  administration  of  the  German  state 
was  just  as  autocratic.  The  Emperor,  who  was  king  of 
Prussia,  determined  the  membership  in  the  Landtag,  the 
legislative  body  of  Prussia,  but  the  house  of  representa- 
tives was  so  selected  that  wealth  and  royal  authority 
determined  the  membership. 

The  government  was  so  organized  that  it  kept  the  citi- 
zens from  becoming  acting  members  of  the  government. 
This  is  best  illustrated  in  the  way  the  voters  were  divided. 

The  small  nimiber  of  wealthy  landlords,  4  per  cent  of 
the  population  that  paid  the  first  third  of  the  taxes,  con- 
stituted one  class  of  voters.     Those  who  paid  the  second 


30  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

third  of  the  taxes,  or  about  14  per  cent  of  the  population, 
another  class ;  and  the  last  third,  or  82  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation, constituting  the  great  mass  of  citizens  who  paid 
the  remainder  of  the  taxes.  Each  class  cast  the  same 
nimiber  of  votes.  In  Germany,  therefore,  property  and 
the  privileged  families  ruled.  It  was  always  thus  in  an 
autocracy. 

2.  The  foreign  policy.  Prussia,  within  a  centtuy,  has 
grown  from  a  strong  state  to  a  great  empire.  It  has 
waged  many  wars,  but  none  in  the  interest  of  human 
freedom.  At  a  time  when  the  world  was  moving  toward 
greater  freedom,  Prussia  took  advantage  of  the  confusion 
to  strengthen  its  autocracy  and  to  increase  its  dominion. 
Denmark  was,  perhaps,  its  weakest  neighbor.  A  quarrel 
was,  therefore,  begun,  resulting  in  a  war  (1864)  with 
Denmark,  and  Schleswig-Holstein  was  ruthlessly  taken 
and  added  to  Prussia.  This  was  followed  by  a  war  with 
Austria  (1866),  deliberately  planned,  which  destroyed 
Austria's  primacy  over  the  German  Confederation,  and 
four  more  principalities  were  added.  Moreover,  twenty- 
one  of  the  lesser  German  states  were  constrained  to  join 
Prussia  in  the  North  German  Confederation,  of  which 
the  king  of  Prussia  became  hereditary  president. 

Prussia  was  jealous  of  the  power  of  France.  Every 
autocrat  sooner  or  later  becomes  obsessed  with  the  notion 
that  divinity  has  decreed  him  to  be  the  greatest  in  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world.  By  intrigue  and  false  messages 
war  with  France  was  precipitated,  and  as  a  result  Alsace- 
Lorraine  was  taken  and  added  to  Prussia.  Moreover, 
the  four  South  German  states  that  had  held  aloof  from 
the  North  German  Confederation,  now  dazzled  by  the 
gilded  power  of  autocratic  Prussia,  came  into  the  new 
federation,  and  the  new  Imperial  German  Government 


HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS  PRESERVED      31 

was  created  at  Versailles  while  the  Prussian  army  held 
Paris,  Thus  in  187 1  the  German  Empire  was  created 
after  years  of  conquest,  annexation,  and  unscrupulous 
diplomacy.  But,  worse  than  this,  a  people  that  once 
struggled  for  liberty  was  now  molded  into  a  shape  to  do 
the  bidding  of  a  conscienceless  autocrat. 

The  people  of  the  conquered  territories  were  never 
consulted.  It  mattered  little  to  Prussia  whether  or  not 
these  annexed  people  desired  to  be  under  German  govern- 
ment. Both  land  and  people  were  held  as  so  much  chattel 
to  enrich  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  and  enhance  the  glory 
of  the  autocratic  HohenzoUems,  whose  national  policy 
has  been  that  each  ruler  should  increase  the  size  of  his 
kingdom,  regardless  of  the  rights  of  other  nations  or  the 
welfare  of  other  people.  And  it  was  this  military  menace 
that  kept  Europe  in  an  armed  state,  and  the  people  under 
a  heavy  financial  burden. 

3.  Prussian  education.  We  are  better  able  to  get  the 
German  perspective  through  a  siu-vey  of  the  educational 
system.  We  have  already  seen  how  intimately  related 
are  the  ideals  of  education  and  those  of  the  state.  In 
America  the  purpose  of  the  system  is  to  give  equal  oppor- 
tunity to  the  children  of  all  classes,  regardless  of  their 
wealth,  birth,  or  other  circumstances.  There  is  one 
public-school  system  for  all,  and  it  extends  from  the 
kindergarten  through  the  university. 

This  is  not  true  in  Germany,  nor  was  it  true  in  any 
monarchical  country  before  the  war.  Since  the  right  of 
suffrage  or  the  right  to  participate  in  the  government 
depends  largely  upon  the  wealth  or  the  privileges  of  its 
citizens,  there  is  not  one  system  in  Germany,  but  many 
systems.  They  follow  class  lines.  There  is  one  school 
for  the  masses,  which  is  free,  and  it  is  the  only  school  that 


32  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

is  free.  There  is  another  school  for  the  classes,  which  is 
out  of  reach  of  the  masses.  Thus  the  government  makes 
a  marked  distinction  between  the  governors  and  the 
governed. 

The  Volksschule,  or  the  school  for  the  masses,  provides 
theoretically  eight  years  of  schooling.  But  in  reality 
it  gives  little  more  than  six  years.  What  the  German 
rulers  expect  of  this  school  is  a  Kaiser-serving  citizen- 
"Unthinking  obedience  to  superiors  is  the  ideal." 

About  90  per  cent  of  the  school  population  is  enrolled 
in  this  school.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  way  is  not  open  for 
students  to  pass  from  this  school  to  higher  institutions. 
"The  growth  of  socialism  among  this  class,"  says  Paulsen, 
Germany's  greatest  educational  authority,  "has  made 
many  German  leaders  urge  that  this  nine-tenths  of  soci- 
ety receive  no  education  at  all  that  it  may  not  have  any 
socialistic  aspirations  for  improving  its  position  or  ques- 
tioning the  necessity  of  obeying  its  superiors."^  The 
inadequate  support  of  this  school  by  the  nation  is  evidence 
that  the  rulers  do  not  intend  the  masses  to  have  an 
opportunity  to  secure  equal  advantages  with  the  classes. 

The  schools  for  the  classes,  in  which  barely  one-tenth 
of  the  children  are  taught,  are  the  schools  the  Germans 
extol.  There  are  to  be  found  the  best  teachers,  the  best 
methods,  and  the  best  equipment.  These  are  the  schools 
that  foreigners  have  been  urged  to  visit.  They  lead 
to  the  universities,  through  which  avenue  the  German 
youth  must  pass,  as  a  rule,  to  governmental  preferment 
and  to  positions  of  trust  and  power  in  the  Empire.  In 
this  way  the  school  system  of  an  autocracy  virtually  closes 
the  door  of  opportunity  to  the  masses. 


^McConaughy,  "Germany's  Educational  Failure,"  School  Review, 
June,  1918. 


HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS  PRESERVED  33 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  German 
universities  were  characterized  by  a  broad  cosmopoli- 
tanism. At  the  same  time  the  people  of  Germany  were 
asking  for  a  constitution.  But  through  the  dictations  of 
the  ruling  classes  teachers  and  professors  of  the  univer- 
sities have  become  "rabid  imperialists  and  adulators  of 
Prussian  aims  and  Prussian  methods,"  until  even  the 
educational  system  of  Germany  has  become  an  instru- 
ment of  tyranny. 

After  Germany  became  Prussianized,  the  state  became 
a  vast  machine  and  its  rulers  were  omnipotent.  Teachers 
and  ministers  of  the  gospel  became  state  officials,  and 
their  employment  and  promotion  were  regulated  by  state 
authority;  "and  all  state  authority  is  in  the  last  analysis 
an  emanation  of  the  Emperor.  Nothing  of  importance 
can  happen  in  Germany  in  direct  and  open  opposition 

to  his  will The  Imperial  German  Government 

lays  down  the  principles  according  to  which  school 
instruction  is  to  be  given;  its  subordinate  organs,  pro- 
vincial, county,  and  township  supervisors,  see  to  it  that 
the  principles  prescribed  are  lived  up  to."^ 

The  Germans  do  not  use  textbooks,  that  is,  "books 
containing  the  text  of  that  which  the  pupils  have  to  learn 
by  heart.  Their  school  books  are  not  textbooks,  but 
manuals,  exercise  books,  guides,  example  books."  It 
is  the  teacher  who  furnishes  the  body  of  the  matter  to 
be  learned  in  the  German  schools.  The  teacher  being 
a  government  official,  and  promotion  being  dependent 
upon  governmental  favor,  it  is  easy  for  the  ruling  class 
to  shape  the  opinions  of  the  people,  maintain  caste  in 
society,  exalt  the  military  above  the  civic,  and  glorify 
wealth  and  the  aristocracy  and  the  ruling  family. 

iIQemm,  Public  Education  in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States. 


34  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

The  Kaiser  has  humiliated  teachers  who  dared  to 
criticize  members  of  the  ruling  family.  He  has  refused 
his  consent  to  awards  for  research  in  history  because 
the  writers  failed  to  glorify  the  Hohenzollems  or  intimated 
that  the  Emperor  could  do  wrong,  and  he  has  diverted 
prizes  to  less  meritorious  writers.  Historians  have  been 
disgraced;  teachers  browbeaten  until  the  whole  educa- 
tional system  has  been  dwarfed  into  one  vast  machine 
which  teaches  the  youth  to  bow  down  to  imperialism, 
worship  material  power,  and  even  justify  the  wrongdoing 
of  autocracy.     Such  are  the  fruits  of  Prussianism. 

"So  long  as  professors  and  writers  did  not  express 
doubts  of  the  rightful  importance  of  the  state,  of  the 
divine  appointment  and  holy  mission  of  the  Hohen- 
zollem  dynasty,  or  of  the  high  destiny  of  Deutschtum, 
they  were  permitted  to  lecture  and  write  about  anything 
they  pleased."^  Obedience  to  the  Kaiser's  will  is  taught 
as  a  religious  duty,  and  to  inculcate  this  duty  on  the  part 
of  the  people  is  esteemed  a  service  to  the  state. 

But  the  Imperial  German  Government  was  not  con- 
tent to  confine  this  instruction,  this  Kultur,  within  its 
territory.  It  sought  to  counteract  the  growth  of  democ- 
racy in  other  countries  by  organizing  education  and  carry- 
ing on  a  propaganda  that  might  appeal  to  individuals 
of  an  autocratic  nature. 

Such  a  purpose  to  Prussianize  the  world,  therefore, 
accounts  for  the  establishment  of  schools  by  Germans 
in  America  of  the  German  pattern  in  which  only  the 
German  language,  German  national  songs,  and  German 
civilization  were  to  be  taught.  This  is  only  one  of  the 
many  subtle  means  adopted  by  Germany  to  destroy 
freedom  in  America  and  in  the  world. 

^Ambassador  Hill. 


HOW  AUTOCRACY  WAS  PRESERVED  35 

Teachers  of  America,  therefore,  should  understand  the 
difference  between  the  purposes  of  the  German  schools 
and  those  of  the  American  schools.  The  results  of  a 
half-century  of  education  in  the  world  are  now  being 
tried  by  fire,  and  the  world  is  turning  to  America  as 
never  before  to  learn  of  her  institutions  and  her  ideals. 

Thus,  through  its  form  of  government,  through  its 
relation  to  foreign  countries,  and  through  its  educational 
system,  Prussianism  reached  its  point  of  development  in 
1 9 14  when  it  became  necessary  again  for  democracy  and 
autocracy  to  meet  in  mortal  combat,  and  we  believe  that 
autocracy  has  at  last  been  overthrown. 

The  World  War.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  democ- 
racy and  autocracy  could  not  live  in  the  world  without 
a  serious  conflict.  Either  good  or  evil  must  ultimately 
triumph,  and  this  war  seems  to  have  brought  out  the  best 
in  democracy  and  the  worst  in  autocracy.  But  how  did 
the  war  begin? 

It  matters  little  what  pretext  was  used.  If  it  had  not 
been  the  murder  of  the  Austrian  Crown  Prince,  it  would 
have  been  something  else.  Prussianism  desired  more 
power.  The  dream  of  Mittel-Europa,  the  divine  right 
of  autocracy,  the  contempt  for  small  nations  and  for 
democracy  —  these  are  the  fruits  of  Prussianism.  In 
1914  it  deliberately  called  the  nations  of  the  world  to 
judgment,  and  the  World  War  was  the  result. 

How  two  nations,  the  one  the  most  constant  prac- 
titioner of  the  old,  the  other  the  most  constant  practi- 
tioner of  the  new  creed  of  mankind,  appeared  before  the 
bar  of  public  opinion  will  be  treated  in  the  next  two 
chapters. 

Topics  for  teachers.  The  foregoing  discussion  is 
merely  an  outline  of  European  history  since  the  Congress 


36        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  Vienna.  The  Board  of  Education  of  England  advises 
all  teachers  of  secondary  schools  to  make  a  study  of 
European  history  beginning  with  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1815),  but  to  lead  up  to  that  study  with  a  review  of  the 
Revolution  in  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
What  were  the  causes  of  that  revolution?  How  did 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  settle  the  revolution?  How 
was  it  in  favor  of  autocracy  and  opposed  to  democracy? 
What  was  the  Holy  Alliance?  What  were  some  of  its 
alleged  purposes  that  affected  America? 

How  did  autocracy  and  democracy  again  appear  before 
the  bar  of  public  opinion  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century?  How  did  the  nations  come  to  the  parting  of 
the  ways?  Why  did  so  many  patriotic  Germans  come 
to  America  in  the  4o*s  and  early  50's?  Give  a  bio- 
graphical sketch  of  one  or  more  who  became  famous  in 
America. 


CHAPTER  V 

PRUSSIANISM   BEFORE   THE   BAR   OF   PUBLIC 
OPINION 

The  Aims  of  the  World  War 

These  are  the  ends  for  which  the  associated  peoples  of  the  world 
are  fighting  and  which  must  be  conceded  them  before  there  can  be 
peace : 

1.  Every  power  anywhere  that  can  secretly  of  its  own  choice 
bring  war  upon  the  world  must  be  bound  or  destroyed. 

2.  All  questions  must  be  settled  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of 
the  people  concerned. 

3.  The  same  respect  for  honor  and  for  law  that  leads  honorable 
men  to  hold  their  promises  as  sacred  and  to  keep  them  at  any  cost 
must  direct  the  nations  in  dealing  with  one  another. 

4.  A  league  of  nations  must  be  formed  strong  enough  to  insure 
the  peace  of  the  world. 

These  great  objects  can  be  put  into  a  single  sentence.  What  we 
seek  is  the  reign  of  law,  based  upon  the  consent  of  the  governed  and 
sustained  by  the  organized  opinion  of  mankind. 

— ^WooDROW  Wilson  at  Mount  Vernon,  July  4,  1918 

Population  and  land  area  of  the  globe.    In  19 14,  the 

year  of  the  beginning  of  the  World  War,  the  population 
of  the  globe,  it  is  estimated,  was  about  1,730,000,000,  and 
the  land  area,  excluding  the  most  uninhabitable  parts 
of  the  Polar  regions,  was  about  50,700,000  square  miles. 
How  much  of  the  man  power  and  material  resources  of 
the  world  were  thrown  into  this  great  war  and  what 
percentage  was  destroyed  will  never  be  fully  known. 
However,  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  how  the  popu- 
lation of  the  globe  was  divided  on  the  issues  involved 
and  how  much  of  the  land  area  with  all  of  its  resources 
was  thrown  into  the  conflict.  Such  a  study  will  bring 
out  forcefully  the  judgment  of  the  world  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth  year  of  the  war. 

37 


38        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

During  the  first  months  only  little  more  than  half  the 
population  and  land  area  were  involved.  But  one  nation 
after  another  was  forced  into  the  conflict  tmtil  over  90 
per  cent  of  the  peoples  of  the  world  were  involved.  As 
each  country  was  drawn  into  the  struggle  it  broke  diplo- 
matic relations  with  or  declared  war  against  all  the 
nations  in  league  with  that  one. 

Therefore  in  references  to  the  entrance  of  the  nations 
into  the  conflict  mention  will  be  made  only  of  the  first 
declaration  of  war,  which  serves  to  point  out  the  country 
each  nation  felt  to  be  most  dangerous  to  its  liberties  or 
to  its  ambitions. 

The  beginning  of  the  World  War  in  19 14.  It  is  well 
known  that  this  terrible  war  was  begim  on  July  28, 
1914,  when  Austria  declared  war  on  Serbia.  Moreover, 
it  is  generally  believed  that  the  incidents  leading  up  to 
that  event  were  dictated  by  the  rulers  of  the  Imperial 
German  Government,  who  had  directed  affairs  because 
of  their  lust  for  world  power.  As  soon,  therefore,  as 
Austria  had  taken  the  initiative,  and  of  course  the  blame 
for  starting  the  war,  Germany  struck  with  such  pre- 
paredness as  to  stagger  human  reason  and  disttirb  the 
equilibriima  of  the  world.  As  a  result  almost  the  entire 
population  and  land  area  of  the  globe  were  mobihzed 
into  two  great  opposing  forces — the  Central  Powers  and 
the  Allies. 

The  following  events  of  the  year  19 14  are  significant: 

Jtdy  28,  Austria  declared  war  on  Serbia. 

August  I,  Germany  declared  war  on  Russia. 

August  3,  Germany  declared  war  on  France. 

August  4,  Germany  declared  war  on  Belgium. 

August  4,  Great  Britain  declared  war  on  Germany. 

August  8,  Montenegro  declared  war  on  Austria. 


PRUSSIANISM   ON   TRIAL 


39 


August  23,  Japan  declared  war  on  Germany. 

November  3,  Russia  declared  war  on  Turkey. 

November  23,  Portugal  declared  war  on  Germany. 

By  the  close  of  the  year,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Turkey  were  at  war  with  Serbia,  Russia,  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Japan,  Montenegro,  Portugal,  and  Belgium — 
three  nations  against  eight,  involving  the  population  and 
the  land  area  of  the  globe  as  follows : 


Population 

Land  Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Central  Powers 

151,934,000 
796,088,000 
782,677,000 

2,207,000 
27,559.000 
20,325,000 

Allies 

Neutral 

Total 

1,729,699,000 

50,091,000 

About  55  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  globe  and 
59  per  cent  of  the  land  area  were  involved.  No  wonder 
the  gravest  apprehension  for  the  future  was  felt  by  all 
thoughtful  people!  The  neutral  nations,  however,  natu- 
rally felt  that,  if  there  were  an5rthing  like  equal  pre- 
paredness for  the  war  as  was  asserted,  the  Allies  with 
all  their  man  power  and  resources  would  soon  make 
quick  work  of  the  Central  Powers.  But  what  were  the 
underlying  causes  of  the  war? 

It  appeared  to  outsiders  dvuing  the  first  months  of  the 
struggle  that  the  conflict  was  the  climax  of  international 
jealousies  of  long  standing  and  that  it  were  best  for 
neutral  nations  to  stand  aside  and  let  the  militaristic 
powers  fight  it  out. 

The  nations  in  1915.  The  war  came  so  suddenly  and 
the  confusion  resulting  from  it  was  so  great  and  so  far- 


40 


EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 


reaching  that  men  of  all  nations  were  bewildered.  They 
could  not  understand  it.  But  in  191 5  three  more  coun- 
tries were  drawn  into  the  conflict: 

May  23,  Italy  declared  war  on  Austria. 

May  24,  San  Marino  declared  war  on  Austria. 

October  14,  Bulgaria  declared  war  on  Serbia. 

The  Central  Powers  had  drawn  in  Bulgaria;  and  the 
Allies,  the  little  principality  of  San  Marino  and  Italy. 
The  line-up,  therefore,  at  the  end  of  the  second  year 
was  as  follows: 


Population 

Land  Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Central  Powers 

156,699,000 
833,145,000 
739,855,000 

2,250,000 
29,267,000 
18,574,000 

Allies 

Neutral 

Total 

1,729,699,000 

50,091,000 

The  ruthlessness  of  Prussianism,  the  bloody  trail  of 
the  Turks,  the  horrors,  the  unbelievable  stories  of  rape 
and  miu"der  that  began  to  float  over  the  world,  could  not 
at  first  be  comprehended  by  the  neutrals.  It  was  psy- 
chologically impossible,  and  still  the  question  would  not 
down:  What  are  the  nations  fighting  for?  What  will 
the  end  of  it  all  be? 

The  nations  in  1916.  It  was  not  until  the  third  year 
that  the  aims  of  the  war  with  all  their  ghastly  horrors 
began  to  appear.  The  neutral  nations  were  busy  sifting 
the  true  from  the  false  and  at  the  same  time  trying  to 
save  themselves.  But  in  the  meantime  in  19 16  two  more 
nations  contiguous  to  the  Central  Powers  were  drawn 
in,  but  on  the  side  of  the  AUies : 

August  27,  Rumania  declared  war  on  Austria. 

November  23,  Greece  declared  war  on  Bulgaria. 


PRUSSIANISM  ON  TRIAL 
The  line  up  in  1916,  therefore,  was  as  follows: 


41 


Population 

Land  Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Central  Powers 

156,699,000 
845,745,000 
727,255,000 

2,250,000 
29,368,000 
18,473,000 

AUies 

Neutral 

Total 

1,729,699,000 

50,091,000 

The  Central  Powers  had  not  gained  a  friend  among 
the  nations.  But  they  were  prosecuting  the  war  so 
vigorously,  and  with  such  certainty  of  success,  that 
their  aims,  becoming  more  and  more  apparent  each  day, 
were  beginning  to  carry  terror  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  nations  in  19 17.  It  was  not  until  the  fourth 
year  of  the  war  that  the  neutral  nations  were  finally 
convinced  that  the  Central  Powers,  led  by  Germany, 
had  set  out  on  a  conquest  for  world  power.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  had  sought  to  determine  for 
America  and  the  remainder  of  the  world  the  aims  of  the 
war.  By  degrees  it  became  clearer  and  clearer  that  not 
only  the  hberties  of  the  world,  but  the  ancient  standards 
of  right  and  justice,  were  being  assailed.  It  was  then 
that  almost  all  the  other  nations  threw  their  man  power 
and  resources  with  the  AUies  to  break  Germany's  power 
and  destroy  Prussianism.  Germany  as  a  nation  was 
outlawed  and  henceforth  treated  as  a  common  criminal 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  No  other  nation  has 
ever  appeared  so  despicable  in  the  eyes  of  such  a  large 
part  of  the  world's  population. 

In  19 1 7  seven  more  nations  came  into  the  war: 

April  6,  United  States  declared  that  a  state  of  war 
existed  between  the  United  States  and  Germany. 

April  7,  Panama  declared  war  on  Germany. 


42 


EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 


April  7,  Cuba  declared  war  on  Germany. 

July  2  2,  Siam  declared  war  on  Germany. 

August  4,  Liberia  declared  war  on  Germany. 

August  14,  China  declared  war  on  Germany. 

October  26,  Brazil  declared  war  on  Germany. 

In  addition  to  these  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Santo 
Domingo,  and  Uruguay  severed  diplomatic  relations 
with  Germany,  making  a  total  of  twelve  nations  that 
broke  with  Germany  in  191 7.  The  line-up,  therefore,  at 
the  close  of  this  year  was  as  follows: 


Population 

Land  Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Central  Powers 

156,699,000 

1,401,672,000 

171,328,000 

2,250,000 

40,498,000 

7,343,000 

Allies 

Neutrals 

Total 

1,729,699,000 

50,091,000 

Still  the  Central  Powers  had  not  gained  a  friend.  But 
the  strength  of  the  Allies  had  increased  until  it  embraced 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  man  power  and  of  the  material 
resources  of  the  globe. 

The  nations  in  1918.  The  nations  of  the  world  had 
taken  a  solemn  vow  that  Prussianism,  outlawed  and 
despised,  must  be  destroyed,  root  and  branch,  in  order 
that  the  moral  eqmlibrium  of  the  universe  might  be 
restored.  No  other  matter  counted  now.  The  nations 
of  the  world  had  only  one  supreme  task. 

In  this  year  five  more  nations  threw  their  resources 
on  the  side  of  the  Allies.  They  were  small,  to  be  sure; 
but  the  moral  effect  was  tremendous. 

April  2 1 ,  Guatemala  declared  war  on  Germany, 

May  23,  Costa  Rica  declared  war  on  Germany. 

May  24,  Nicaragua  declared  war  on  Germany, 


PRUSSIANISM   ON   TRIAL  43 

July  12,  Haiti  delcared  war  on  Germany. 
July  19,  Honduras  declared  war  on  Germany. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  war,  therefore, 
public  opinion  of  the  world  was  thus  divided: 


Population 

Land  Area  *  in 
Square  Miles 

Central  Powers 

156,699,000 

1,408,000,000 

165,000,000 

2,250,000 

40,526,000 

7,315,000 

Allies 

Neutral 

Total 

1,729,699,000 

50,091,000 

*  In  the  land  area  of  the  neutrals  the  Polar  Regions,  embrac- 
ing about  seven  million  square  miles  of  territory  uninhabitable 
for  the  most  part,  has  been  omitted.  The  land  area  of  the  earth 
is  estimated  at  57,691,000  square  miles. 

Condemnation  of  Prussianism.  After  19 15  the  Cen- 
tral Powers  did  not  gain  a  friend  among  all  the  nations 
of  the  globe.  But  as  the  European  Allies  stood  with 
their  backs  to  the  wall,  sacrificing  men,  women,  children, 
and  material  resources  in  order  that  Prussianism  might 
not  triumph,  over  500,000,000  people  from  every  con- 
tinent and  from  every  zone  voluntarily  threw  their 
resources  to  their  aid,  and  at  the  close  of  the  fourth 
year  of  the  war,  19 18,  a  little  more  than  81  per  cent  of 
the  peoples  of  the  earth  had  thus  made  a  firm  resolve 
to  break  the  power  of  the  outlawed  nation  that  embraced 
only  about  9  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  earth,  leaving 
less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe 
scattered  throughout  Central  Asia,  Central  Africa,  parts 
of  South  America  and  Central  America,  and  the  small 
neutral  nations  of  Europe  that  remained  out  of  the  war 
for  the  sake  of  their  own  preservation. 

Thus  before  the  bar  of  public  opinion  the  Central  Powers 
were  outlawed;  and  Prussianism,  the  guiding  spirit,  was 


44        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

tabooed  as  a  thing  to  be  destroyed.  And  thus  it  came 
to  pass  that  Prussianism  was  first  hated  of  all  men,  and 
the  hope  is  that  it  is  now  destroyed  forever.  How  the 
world  has  changed  since  1815! 

Topics  for  teachers.  Every  teacher  shotild  seek  to 
understand  the  nature  of  this  evil  spirit,  called  Prussian- 
ism, that  has  caused  so  much  disorder  in  the  world,  in 
order  that  it  shall  not  insidiously  appear  in  any  part  of 
our  social  life. 

Why  is  some  concert  of  the  powers  of  the  world  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  world  against  wars  which  as  a  rule 
are  the  result  of  one  people  seeking  to  impose  its  will 
upoQ  another  people? 

Will  the  solemn  covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
if  it  is  faithfvilly  adhered  to  by  the  leading  nations, 
preserve  the  peace  of  the  world  and  promote  human 
welfare? 

Does  not  the  safety  of  a  community  depend  upon  a 
real  or  implied  covenant  of  the  best  people  to  seek  justice 
and  see  that  the  right  shall  prevail? 


CHAPTER  VI 

AMERICANISM  BEFORE  THE  BAR  OF  PUBLIC 
OPINION 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State! 

Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great! 

Humanity  with  all  its  fears. 

With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years, 

Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate! 

We  know  what  Master  laid  th^  keel, 

What  Workmen  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel. 

Who  made  each  mast,  and  sail,  and  rope. 

What  anvils  rang,  what  hammers  beat. 

In  what  a  forge  and  what  a  heat 

Were  shaped  the  anchors  of  thy  hope! 

Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock, 

'Tis  of  the  wave  and  not  the  rock; 

*Tis  but  the  flapping  of  the  sail. 

And  not  a  rent  made  by  the  gale! 

In  spite  of  rock  and  tempest's  roar, 

In  spite  of  false  lights  on  the  shore, 

Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea! 

Our  hearts,  otu:  hopes,  are  all  with  thee, 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our  prayers,  our  tears. 

Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears, 

Are  all  with  thee, —  are  all  with  thee! 

— Longfellow 

America's  birthday.  By  July,  191 8,  as  has  been  said, 
81  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  world  had  declared  that 
Prussianism  was  so  destructive  of  the  best  in  the  world 
and  so  dangerous  to  human  freedom  and  human  progress 
that  it  must  be  destroyed.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
America,  once  despised  by  all  monarchies,  was  also  stand- 
ing in  the  full  light  of  public  opinion.  It,  too,  came  up 
voluntarily  and  spontaneously  to  judgment.  Its  tradi- 
tions were  guaranties  of  its  genuine  love  of  justice  and 
fair  play,  and  its  more  recent  acts  gave  a  meaning  to  its 

45 


46  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

history  that  caused  all  people,  except  the  war  lords  of 
the  Central  Powers  and  their  adherents,  to  pay  homage 
to  its  greatness  on  its  natal  day  —  an  homage  greater 
than  that  paid  to  any  other  coimtry  of  the  world  either 
past  or  present,  for  never  before  have  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  both  Christian  and  non-Christian,  paid  such 
tributes  to  one  country  as  they  paid  to  America  on 
July  4,  1918.  Americanism,  therefore,  was  praised  as 
universally  as  Prussianism  was  denounced.  But  how 
did  America  appear  before  the  world?  The  occasion 
was  the  celebration  of  its  one  hundred  and  forty-second 
birthday. 

In  England  American  flags  flying  everywhere  were 
emblematic  of  the  demonstrations  taking  place  where- 
ever  the  English  language  is  spoken.  Westminster  Hall 
was  thrown  open  for  a  great  assembly;  the  bells  of  St. 
Paul's  rang  out  greetings  to  the  Stars  and  Stripes ;  special 
celebrations  of  Holy  Communion  were  held  in  honor  of 
the  day;  and  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  the  Prime  Minister, 
said:  "We  join  with  our  whole  hearts  in  yoiu-  Fourth  of 
July  celebrations.  Once  a  bitter  memory,  we  now  know 
that  the  events  to  which  you  dedicate  these  rejoicings 
forced  the  British  Empire  back  to  the  path  of  freedom 
from  which  in  a  moment  of  evil  counsel  it  had  departed." 

The  leading  statesmen  of  England  were  strong  in  their 
praise  of  Americanism.  But  perhaps  the  most  significant 
words  uttered  were  those  of  Mr.  Hall  Caine,  the  EngHsh 
noveHst,  who  declared:  "The  Fourth  of  July  will  be  a 
day  of  freedom  from  the  shadow  of  the  sword  which  has 
darkened  the  sleep  of  men  for  more  than  one  thousand 
years.  It  will  be  a  day  of  liberation  from  the  t3a-anny 
of  the  strong,  from  the  enslavement  of  the  weak,  from  the 
subjugation  of  the  silent  masses  that  have  shed  their 
blood  age  after  age  at  the  feet  of  the  criminals  who  have 


AMERICANISM  ON   TRIAL  47 

sought  for  nothing  but  their  selfish  dominion  and  gained 
nothing  but  their  guilty  glory.  It  will  be  the  Independ- 
ence Day  of  the  world.'' 

Nor  were  the  provinces  of  Great  Britain  unmindful  of 
the  day.  Canada,  New  Zealand,  Australia  and  New 
South  Wales,  and  Southern  Africa  paid  tribute  to  this 
nation ;  and  Australian  troops  fighting  by  the  side  of  the 
American  boys  in  France  on  that  day  paused  in  the  front- 
line trenches  to  mingle  their  expressions  of  gratitude  with 
the  love  of  the  American  soldiers  for  "the  land  of  the  free 
and  the  home  of  the  brave." 

The  Union  of  English-speaking  Peoples  was  organized 
in  London  then  to  emphasize  the  fact,  and  has  since  grown 
so  rapidly  that  not  only  in  England  and  the  United  States, 
but  also  in  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South 
Africa,  it  is  now  in  operation  with  an  international  maga- 
zine. The  Landmark,  of  its  own. 

In  France  the  Stars  and  Stripes  waved  with  the  Tri- 
color. It  was  the  gayest  day  in  France  since  the  beginning 
of  the  war.  Even  in  the  African  provinces  of  France 
the  Fourth  of  July  was  a  national  hoHday.  The  popula- 
tions of  cities,  towns,  and  villages  tiimed  out,  and  little 
children  marched  by  the  side  of  American  soldiers  to  show 
their  affection.  A  reproduction  of  the  Statue  of  Liberty 
w^s  set  up  in  Algiers  as  a  mark  of  esteem  for  Americanism. 

President  Poincare,  in  sending  greetings  to  President 
Wilson,  said  that  the  government  of  the  Republic  of 
France  had  ordained  that  "the  Independence  day  of 
the  United  States  shall  also  be  a  French  holiday,"  and 
that  "Paris  will  give  your  glorious  name  to  one  of  its 
handsomest  avenues." 

In  Italy  and  in  the  Italian  provinces  of  Northern 
Africa  processions  of  troops,  great  assemblages  of  people, 
and  the  waving  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes  bore  testimony 


48        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  Italy's  affection  for  America  and  of  her  gratitude  for 
Americanism.  Italian  provinces  still  under  the  subjec- 
tion of  Austria  sent  messages  to  Rome  asking  America 
not  to  forget  them.  King  Victor  Emmanuel  declared 
that  Americanism  was  the  spirit  that  was  guiding  the 
nations  of  the  earth,  and  the  Fourth  of  July  was  declared 
a  national  holiday  to  be  "celebrated  by  all  free  peoples 
as  if  it  were  their  own  gladsome  holiday,  or  a  rite  portend- 
ing the  victory  of  Hberty  and  justice." 

Especially  significant  were  the  words  of  Vittorio 
Orlando,  the  Premier  of  Italy,  who  declared:  "The 
American  people  were  bom  to  liberty,  but  for  them  liberty 
includes  justice  for  themselves  and  others.  That  is  why, 
foreign  to  every  instinct  of  violence  and  all  spirit  of 
presumption,  America  has  devoted  all  of  its  inextinguish- 
able energy  to  the  industrial  aims  of  Peace  and  to  the 
lofty  aspirations  of  himianity;  giving  audacious,  admir- 
able proofs  of  the  possibilities  of  labor." 

In  the  one  spot  of  Belgium  still  free  from  German 
control  the  Stars  and  Stripes  were  raised  in  the  presence 
of  the  King  and  all  government  officials,  and  there  the 
most  abused  of  all  people  of  Etirope  thanked  the  American 
nation  for  its  services.  There,  too,  little  children  prayed 
for  the  spread  of  Americanism  and  for  the  triiunph  of 
right  and  justice.  King  Albert,  still  holding  to  the 
small  remnant  of  what  a  little  while  ago  was  a  happy 
and  a  free  people,  thanked  God  for  the  greatness  of  the 
American  nation. 

In  Greece  rulers  as  well  as  people  paid  homage  to  the 
American  spirit  whose  sole  aim  is  "the  defense  of  the 
imprescribable  rights  of  the  oppressed  people  everywhere." 

But  not  alone  in  Europe  did  the  people  pay  honor  to 
America  on  her  natal  day.  In  Asia  the  Mongolian 
people,  whose  social  standards  have  ever  been  different 


AMERICANISM  ON  TRIAL  49 

from  those  of  the  Caucasian,  sent  messages  of  good  will. 
China  and  Siam  and  the  people  of  India  celebrated  the 
day,  and  Japan  through  her  ambassador  declared:  "We 
trust  you,  we  love  you,  and  if  you  will  let  us  we  will 
walk  at  your  side  in  loyal  good  fellowship  down  all  the 
coming  ages." 

The  entire  continent  of  South  America,  whose  aloof- 
ness heretofore  has  been  a  regrettable  fact,  celebrated 
the  day  in  an  imprecedented  manner.  In  Brazil,  Peru, 
and  Uruguay  the  Fourth  of  July  is  a  national  hoUday, 
and  it  was  observed  as  fully  as  their  own  independence 
day.  Argentina,  Chili,  and  Venezuela  celebrated  the 
day  with  enthusiasm. 

Mexico,  war-worn  as  she  was,  was  not  to  be  outdone. 
Elaborate  exercises  were  held  in  Mexico  City.  All 
stores  except  those  operated  by  Germans  were  closed. 
President  Carranza  sent  the  most  cordial  congratulations 
from  the  Mexican  people  and  the  Mexican  government 
with  the  wish  "that  peace  and  justice  will  reign  soon 
forever  in  both  continents." 

In  Cuba  the  Fourth  of  July  is  a  national  holiday,  and 
that  yotmg,  prosperous  nation,  which  owes  its  life  to 
America,  sent  warm  greetings  through  its  president,  who 
averred  that  the  day  was  "now  more  revered  than  ever 
for  its  significance  in  the  supreme  conflict  which  is  to 
decide  the  future  of  liberty  and  democracy  in  the  world." 

In  America  the  day  was  celebrated  in  an  imusual 
manner.  Representatives  of  more  than  a  score  of  nation- 
alities, including  Germans  who  love  the  Fatherland  but 
hate  Prussianism,  and  have  made  their  homes  in  the 
United  States,  paraded  the  principal  cities,  testifying  to 
their  loyalty;  and  in  Philadelphia  representatives  of 
more    than    thirty    nationalities    gathered    together    in 


50  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Independence  Hall  and  signed  a  pledge  of  allegiance  to 
the  country  of  their  adoption. 

Americanism  on  trial.  Thus  did  Americanism  come 
before  the  bar  of  public  opinion  at  the  same  time  that 
Prussianism  was  outlawed  by  8i  per  cent  of  the  people 
of  the  globe.  Democracy  has  challenged  autocracy  in 
every  form,  in  every  land,  and  it  has  become  the  adopted 
creed  of  the  major  portion  of  the  peoples  of  the  earth, 
while  autocracy  has  become  anathema  wherever  right 
and  justice  have  a  voice. 

How  the  world  has  changed  since  1776!  It  is  the  duty 
now  of  every  American  citizen  seriously  to  ask  himself 
this  question:  Were  the  expressions  of  the  nations  of  the 
world  on  July  4,  19 18,  the  result  of  an  excess  of  enthu- 
siasm growing  out  of  their  gratitude  to  America,  or  did 
they  really  believe  the  words  that  were  uttered?  Now 
that  the  war  is  over,  will  the  individual  and  governmental 
acts  be  measured  favorably  by  that  standard  set  up  for 
America  a  year  ago?  It  remains  for  the  school  to  give 
the  answer.     What  will  that  answer  be? 

But  what  astonished  the  nations  of  the  world  was  the 
rapidity  with  which  a  great  democracy  could  mobilize 
its  resources  and  make  ready  for  war.  It  had  become 
axiomatic  that  a  democracy  is  helpless  in  times  of  war, 
that  its  tendency  to  argue  makes  quick  and  effective 
action  impossible,  and  that  only  an  autocracy  can 
promptly  mobilize  and  strike  at  once  with  the  united 
strength  of  the  whole  nation.  Prussianism  had  based 
its  hopes  of  a  great  world  empire  on  this  supposed  truth. 
But  the  example  of  America  organizing  quickly  its  entire 
man  power  and  material  resotirces  not  only  exploded 
that  old  theory,  but  destroyed  the  last  claims  of  autocracy 
for  supremacy  and  at  the  same  time  added  new  glories  to 
the  virtues  of  democracy. 


CHAPTER   VII 

HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE   ITSELF  FIT 

Cooperation,  the  Last  Word  in  Democracy 

Organization  is  the  new  word  in  Democracy.  It  is  Democracy 
coming  of  age.  In  its  ebullient  youth  Democracy  was  all  for  indi- 
vidualism. The  souls  of  men  had  been  so  long  cramped  by  old 
institutions,  hampered  by  caste,  restrained  by  monarchies  and 
aristocracies,  that  when  they  broke  loose,  as  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  the  early  days  of  the  American  Republic,  they  went  to 
extremes 

But  we  are  getting  over  that — we  are  realizing  that  while  the 
first  word  in  Democracy  is  Liberty,  the  last  word  is  Cooperation. 

Cooperation   grew,    after   the   American   fashion.     It   was   not 

dictated   to    us Business  men  got  together  and  formed 

trusts.  Laboring  men  got  together  and  formed  unions.  Churches 
are  looking  with  brotherly  eyes  toward  each  other. 

At  this  stage  came  War.  And  in  a  day  America  burst  into  adult- 
hood  For   the   War  brought  home  to  us  that  we  must 

organize  or  perish;  that  without  unity  Democracy  is  a  heap  of 
stones,  a  helpless  mass.  And  now,  as  never  before  in  our  history, 
the  hearts  and  minds  of  all  men  are  fused.  Under  pressure  of  the 
Supreme  Danger  we  are  finding  Brotherhood. 

—  Dr.  Frank  Crane,  in  McClure's  Magazine, 
September,  191 8 

Democracy  finding  its  souL  It  was  the  nature  of 
Prussianism  to  be  ready  for  war.  It  ruled  by  force. 
Therefore  force  was  always  organized.  Other  nations 
of  the  world  which  had  taken  the  road  that  leads  to 
democracy  had  abandoned  force  as  the  law  of  the  world. 
These  nations  were  exalting  right  and  justice  within  and 
emplo3ring  force  only  so  far  as  to  safeguard  right  and 
justice.  When  Prussianism  struck,  therefore,  democracy 
had  to  shift  quickly  from  a  peace  basis  to  a  war  basis. 

The  way  in  which  America  was  able  to  pass  so  quickly 
from  individual  liberty  to  community  cooperation  and 
make  itself  fit  to  meet  a  great  crisis  was  a  marvel. 

51 


52  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

As  the  soul  of  an  individual  is  measiired  by  the  heights 
to  which  the  whole  man  may  rise,  body  and  soul  cooper- 
ating, so  the  soul  of  a  nation  is  measured  by  the  extent 
of  the  cooperation  of  its  entire  man  power.  A  democracy, 
therefore,  in  making  itself  fit  first  had  to  find  its  soul. 

When  war  was  declared,  the  people  generally  thought 
only  of  a  larger  army  and  a  powerful  navy  and  ways  of 
reaching  the  battlefields  of  Europe.  The  first  acts  of 
the  President  and  Congress  were  not  to  start  a  great 
army  to  Europe,  but  to  make  the  nation  a  cooperating 
unit.  A  state  of  war  was  declared  to  exist  on  April  6, 
1917.  On  June  5  nearly  ten  million  civilians  were  drafted 
into  the  army  and  the  navy,  and  within  eighteen  months 
two  million  soldiers  were  landed  in  France  and  two  mil- 
lion more  were  in  training. 

These  simple  facts,  great  as  they  are,  merely  hint  at 
the  mighty  spirit  of  democracy  at  work  within  the  nation; 
and  the  army  in  France  was  but  one  of  the  larger  mani- 
festations of  its  tremendous  soul  power. 

A  valuable  lesson.  The  teacher,  therefore,  may  derive 
a  valuable  lesson  from  the  nation  preparing  for  war. 
We  are  learning  again  what  the  founders  of  this  common- 
wealth meant  when  they  declared  that  one  purpose  of 
education  is  to  make  every  man,  regardless  of  birth  or 
wealth,  an  acting  member  of  the  government.  More- 
over, we  are  learning  anew  that  the  strategic  points  of 
the  nation  are  not  in  its  capitals  nor  its  large  cities,  but 
in  the  smaller  communities ;  that  the  center  of  the  com- 
munity is  the  school;  and  that  the  volimtary  cooperation 
of  all  the  communities  determines  not  only  the  strength 
of  the  nation,  but  the  heights  to  which  it  may  attain. 

We  should  not  forget,  again,  that  a  nation  has  a  soul 
and  that,  like  individuals,  it  may  save  it  or  lose  it. 


HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE  ITSELF  FIT  53 

When  the  crisis  came,  many  declared  that  the  nation 
was  composed  of  a  group  of  shopkeepers  too  selfish  to 
respond  to  the  divine  simunons,  that  its  society  was 
boimd  together  only  by  ropes  of  sand,  that  it  was  help- 
less in  the  face  of  such  a  world  disaster,  and  that  the 
people  could  only  wait  for  the  coming  of  the  infamous 
and  ruthless  Prussian  to  fill  his  gluttonous  maw  on  the 
material  acctunulations  of  a  century. 

Little  did  the  world  know  that  democracy  has  a  soul, 
and  that,  although  the  first  word  is  individual  Hberty,  the 
last  word  is  cooperation.  It  was  only  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  imify  its  Ufe  and  make  it  really  sensitive  to  the 
great  impending  evil.  Then  its  strength  became  the 
combined  strength  of  all. 

The  world  is  now  conscious  of  its  tremendous  power. 
It  is  charged  with  such  force  that  aliens,  slackers,  traitors, 
all  are  overwhelmed  by  it,  and  the  accompHshment  of 
this  nation  in  such  a  brief  time  seems  Httle  short  of  a 
miracle.  But  how  was  the  great  American  spirit  brought 
into  play?    How  did  the  nation  find  its  soul? 

How  body  and  soul  were  unified.  Teachers  should 
keep  in  mind  that  the  one  great  aim  was  to  organize  a 
large  army  and  build  and  equip  a  large  fleet  to  fight 
both  on  water  and  in  the  air.  Observe,  therefore,  what 
was  necessary  to  be  done  in  order  to  make  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  the  country  an  acting  member  of 
the  government. 

I.  A  Council  of  National  Defense  with  an  Advisory 
Commission  was  created  to  protect  the  home  and  to  bring 
about  industrial  preparedness.  Railroads,  textile  indus- 
tries, financial  institutions,  sanitation,  hygiene,  and 
medical  relief,  labor,  science  and  research,  control  of 
raw  material  such  as  copper,  coal,  iron,  and  other  metals, 


54  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

the  building  of  merchant  vessels,  and  even  vocational 
education,  came  under  its  jurisdiction  or  advisement. 

2.  A  Food  Control  Board  was  created  to  cooperate 
with  the  federal  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  state, 
and  the  community,  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  land 
which  heretofore  had  not  been  cultivated,  to  protect  and 
conserve  the  live  stock,  to  practice  economy  and  check 
waste,  to  mobilize  labor  necessary  for  the  production  of 
food,  to  utilize  the  faculties  of  science  of  colleges  and 
universities,  and  to  establish  departments  of  home 
economics  in  towns,  cities,  and  rural  districts. 

3.  The  experts  of  the  country  were  organized.  Phy- 
sicians, surgeons,  and  nurses  formed  hospital  units  and 
were  in  France  within  three  weeks  after  war  was  declared 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  army.  Ten  thousand  rail- 
road engineers  went  to  France  at  once  and  began  con- 
structing railroads  and  building  military  roads  and 
bridges. 

A  National  Gas  Defense  Board  was  organized,  composed 
of  leading  pathologists,  bacteriologists,  and  physiologists, 
to  devise  apparatus  for  the  detection  and  neutralization 
of  deadly  gases  used  by  the  Germans. 

Laboratories  of  the  country  were  set  to  work  to  devise 
ways  and  means  of  destroying  the  submarine. 

Trained  men  of  the  country  were  called  upon  to  give 
their  assistance  in  improving  our  industrial  enterprises 
and  to  throw  the  emphasis  on  production  rather  than 
on  profits.  Industrial  chemistry  secured  a  new  purpose, 
mineral  resources  were  studied,  and  the  forests  were 
surveyed  with  a  view  to  conserving  the  timbers  and 
securing  the  best  material. 

4.  The  women  of  the  country  were  organized.  The 
Red  Cross  War  Council  was  created,  and  women  and 


HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE  ITSELF  FIT  55 

girls  were  formed  into  units  to  make  supplies  for  hospitals, 
to  study  how  to  prevent  disease,  and  to  stop  infection  and 
contagion.  Ntirses  were  trained  to  care  for  the  wounded, 
and  before  the  first  army  landed  in  Europe  the  Red 
Cross  niirses  were  already  in  France. 

5.  The  shipping  industry  was  revolutionized.  A  Ship- 
ping Board  was  created  to  organize  the  shipping  business 
of  the  country,  to  increase  its  capacity,  to  direct  its  lines, 
and  to  control  its  cargoes. 

6.  A  War  Trade  Board  was  created  to  control  American 
exports,  to  see  that  no  timber,  minerals,  food,  or  clothing 
material  went  to  Germany,  but  that  those  necessities 
were  available  only  for  the  American  army  or  our  allies. 

7.  An  efficient  railroad  system  was  essential  to  the 
welfare  of  the  people  at  home  and  the  support  and 
transportation  of  the  army.  The  railroads  were  there- 
fore taken  over  by  the  government  and  placed  at  the 
service  of  the  nation. 

8.  A  National  War  Labor  Board  was  created.  Never 
has  the  welfare  of  this  nation  or  that  of  the  world  been 
so  dependent  upon  the  labor  of  this  country.  The 
National  War  Labor  Board  was,  therefore,  created  to  deal 
with  disputes  between  labor  and  capital,  to  prevent  strikes 
and  waste  in  disputes,  to  safeguard  labor  in  industrial 
plants,  to  provide  for  the  training  of  unskilled  labor,  to 
make  broad  plans  for  the  utilization  of  women  in  indus- 
trial service,  to  provide  good  living  conditions  for  the 
workers,  to  keep  informed  as  to  the  supply  of  labor  in  all 
parts  of  the  cotmtry,  to  promote  sound  sentiment  gener- 
ally on  labor  matters,  and  to  provide  employment  bureaus 
and  develop  better  management  and  methods  of  labor. 

9.  The  religious  bodies  were  organized.  Protestants, 
Catholics,  and  Jews  embracing  over  forty-two  million 


56        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

members  were  drawn  closer  together  by  cooperative  work 
in  order  to  conserve  the  moral  and  religious  welfare  of  the 
people,  to  care  for  the  women  in  service,  to  safeguard  the 
babies  of  dependent  parents  when  the  supporters  should 
enter  the  army,  to  give  the  negroes  aid  and  comfort  and 
protection,  to  aid  the  government  in  making  the  soldiers 
clean  and  pure  and  vigorous  men,  to  help  solve  the  rural 
life  problem  and  clean  up  the  slvrais  of  the  cities,  to  lend 
encouragement  to  the  Boy  Scouts  and  the  Camp  Fire 
Girls,  and  to  assist  all  patriotic  agencies  of  every  com- 
mimity. 

10.  The  National  Coimcil  of  Education  was  created 
to  study  the  educational  needs  of  the  country,  to  stabilize 
the  sentiments  of  the  people  dtuing  the  crisis,  to  encoiir- 
age  yoimg  men  and  young  women  not  in  the  army  to 
continue  their  education  so  that  the  supply  of  educated 
men  and  women  might  not  be  materially  reduced  as  a 
result  of  the  war,  and  to  organize  educational  centers 
in  Etu-ope  where  soldiers  might  be  trained  for  specialized 
work  and  where  the  maimed  might  be  taught  trades 
that  will  make  them  self-supporting  in  the  future. 

11.  "Public  opinion  must  be  enlightened"  was  Jeffer- 
son's doctrine  when  the  nation  was  founded.  It  is  like- 
wise the  creed  of  the  leaders  of  the  nation  to-day.  A 
Committee  on  Public  Information  was,  therefore,  created 
to  give  accurate  and  full  information  to  the  people  about 
the  causes  of  the  war  and  the  status  of  the  country  during 
the  war,  to  censor  war  news  that  might  aid  the  enemy, 
to  seciire  the  services  of  the  historians  and  the  literary 
men  of  the  nation,  to  publish  bulletins  and  distribute 
them,  to  make  use  of  the  moving  pictures  in  presenting 
phases  of  the  war  and  the  needs  of  the  nation,  to  send 
out  speakers  to  address  assemblies  at  theaters,  moving- 


HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE  ITSELF  FIT  57 

picture  houses,  schoolhouses,  and  other  public  places, 
and  to  utilize  every  agency  possible  in  keeping  the  people 
enlightened. 

12.  The  nation  had  to  secure  funds  for  raising  and 
equipping  a  great  fighting  machine.  The  best  experts 
were  put  to  work  to  study  ways  and  means  of  defraying 
the  cost  of  the  war.  Even  the  preliminary  efforts  of  the 
first  few  weeks  after  war  was  declared,  in  organizing  an 
army  and  giving  aid  to  our  allies,  cost  more  than  the 
entire  Civil  War.  Huge  bond  issues  running  into  the 
billions,  and  taxation  schemes  that  surpassed  anything 
ever  dreamed  of  before,  were  worked  out. 

Thus  was  the  great  American  spirit  unified,  and  the 
whole  body  of  the  nation  began  to  respond  to  the  deep 
pulsations  of  the  world.  Its  woes  became  the  nation's 
woes;  its  burdens,  the  nation's  burdens;  and  each  section 
of  the  country  was  vying  with  every  other  section  in 
its  work,  not  for  self,  but  for  humanity. 

The  nation  had  at  last  found  its  soul. 

This  gigantic  preparedness  might  be  designated  as  the 
first  step  in  getting  ready  to  fight.  How  much  preliminary 
work  is  done  by  teachers,  principals,  and  superintendents 
before  they  are  ready  to  teach  the  child?  This  is  the 
first  great  lesson  that  may  be  learned  from  studying 
the  preparedness  program  of  the  nation. 

How  the  spirit  of  the  soldiers  was  preserved.  There 
is,  however,  still  another  lesson  for  the  teachers  of 
America:  How  the  nation  sought  to  preserve  the  morale 
of  the  soldiers. 

I.  The  government  enrolled  all  men  between  the  ages 
of  twenty-one  and  thirty-one  and  classified  them  accord- 
ing to  their  fitness  for  service.  It  established  the  Reserve 
Officers'  Training  Corps  units  in  different  parts  of  the 


58        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

country  in  which  to  give  special  instruction  to  the  men 
training  to  be  officers.  Old  military  tactics  and  manceu- 
vers  were  no  longer  adequate. 

2.  It  established  training  centers  for  chaplains,  and 
Protestants  and  Catholics  for  the  first  time  in  history 
took  the  same  preliminary  training  for  religious  and 
moral  leadersliip. 

3.  Great  cantonments  were  constructed,  and  every 
modem  precaution  was  taken  to  conserve  the  health  of 
the  soldiers  before  the  men  were  called  to  camp.  Experts 
in  drainage,  pure  water  supply,  and  wholesome  air  went 
ahead  of  the  workmen. 

And  then  the  soldiers  were  called. 

4.  Following  the  soldiers  were  the  welfare  agencies. 
Each  cantonment  was  divided  into  communities.  In 
them  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  the  Knights 
of  Colimibus,  the  Jewish  Welfare  Board,  and  others 
provided  devotional  exercises,  lectures,  study  courses, 
amusements,  assembly  places,  writing  and  reading  rooms, 
and  wholesome  recreation  for  the  men,  and  under  their 
supervision  the  Library  War  Coimcil  established  libraries 
for  the  soldiers. 

5.  A  commission  was  created  to  promote  outdoor 
recreation  such  as  games  and  sports,  and  athletics  became 
a  vital  force  in  the  making  of  a  soldier.  Training-camp 
activities  were  placed  tmder  the  charge  of  one  man,  who 
organized  a  vast  machine  for  supplying  adequate  amuse- 
ments and  regular  recreation  for  the  soldiers. 

Never  in  history  did  a  government  try,  as  the  United 
States  government  tried,  to  make  camp  conditions  and 
environment  such  that  the  men  in  its  army  and  navy, 
most  of  whom  came  in  clean  and  decent,  might  lead 
wholesome  lives,  as  enjoyable  as  the  duties  of  a  soldier 


HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE  ITSELF  FIT  59 

or  a  sailor  wotild  permit,  and  go  home  after  the  war  was 
over  clean  and  decent,  morally  and  physically. 

6.  Music  and  commtinity  singing  were  found  to  be  a 
necessity.  Leaders  of  singing  were  appointed,  and  the 
soldiers  were  taught  to  sing  with  spirit  patriotic  songs, 
the  old  ballads,  and  great  religious  hymns. 

The  communities  of  America  at  work.  Although  this 
nation  embraces  large  areas  of  territory  in  different  parts 
of  the  globe,  the  communities  everywhere  responded 
promptly.  Nearly  ten  million  men  registered  for  war 
service  in  one  day.  The  food  problem  was  taken  in 
hand,  home  gardens  were  ctdtivated,  waste  places  and 
abandoned  lands  were  producing  food,  labor  was  active; 
the  brains  of  the  country  were  mobilized ;  school  children 
in  the  remote  rural  districts  were  working  and  saving. 
And  the  tramp,  tramp  of  a  million  trained  soldiers  was 
an  evidence  that  democracy  had  met  the  challenge  of 
autocracy,  and  that  every  man,  woman,  and  child  was 
becoming  an  acting  member  of  the  government. 

"  No  group  of  directors,  economic  or  political,  can  speak 
for  a  people.  They  have  neither  the  point  of  view  nor 
the  knowledge."  The  people  speak  for  themselves,  and 
the  place  where  public  opinion  is  formed,  enlightened,  and 
mattired  is  the  commimity. 

Not  only  continental  America,  but  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii, 
the  Philippines,  Alaska,  and  all  other  remote  sections  of 
the  country  were  cooperating.  Never  in  the  history  of 
the  nation  has  such  an  educational  campaign  been 
conducted. 

Mr.  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  said 
that  before  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  the  war  he  visited 
Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  There  he  saw,  in 
one  schoolroom,  children  of  natives  and  foreigners,  more 


6o  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

than  a  score  of  different  nationalities  represented,  work- 
ing in  Junior  Red  Cross  circles,  talking  of  food  conser- 
vation, and  discussing  the  causes  of  the  war.  He  said 
that  the  school  children  of  those  far-away  islands  could 
repeat  the  words  of  the  national  songs  of  America  or 
sing  them;  that  the  women  had  their  Red  Cross  units, 
and  that  when  a  company  of  their  soldiers  embarked 
for  France,  the  natives  with  the  true  American  spirit 
gave  their  sons  the  same  enthusiastic  farewells  that  the 
Americans  in  the  States  gave  their  boys  when  they 
embarked. 

The  American  community  in  France.  It  is  said 
that  when  the  first  advance  guard  of  physicians,  nurses, 
and  engineers  landed  in  France  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  coming  of  the  American  army  they  were  entirely 
bewildered.  Where  to  begin,  what  to  do,  how  to  make 
ready,  were  unanswered  questions.  They  had  to  find 
an  answer,  and  that,  too,  quickly.  Millions  of  soldiers 
were  preparing  to  cross  the  ocean,  and  the  command 
was.  Prepare  the  way!  In  Northern  France  the  great 
carnage  was  weakening  the  Allies,  who  were  holding  on 
heroically  until  the  Americans  could  come,  and  from 
every  source  came  the  command,  Prepare  the  way! 

This  advance  guard  having  the  American  spirit  and 
the  American  ideal  fell  back  on  the  original  plan  of  the 
American  government.  They  planted  themselves  at 
strategic  points  and  began  to  build  American  centers, 
American  communities.  The  plan  then  began  to  imfold 
like  a  scroll.  These  centers  grew,  commtmities  were 
built,  and  from  them  the  different  army  units  moved 
into  the  firing  line. 

Irving  S.  Cobb  tells  a  thrilling  story  of  American 
enterprise  in  France  —  "how  veritable  cities  have  sprung 


HOW  DEMOCRACY  MADE  ITSELF  PIT  6i 

up  where  last  January  the  wind  whistled  over  stubble 
field  and  snow-laden-pine  thickets."  And  at  each  impor- 
tant camp,  "each  station,  each  center  has  its  own  water 
system,  its  own  electric  light  system,  its  own  police  force, 
its  own  fire  department,  its  own  sanitary  squad,  its  own 
sewers,  its  own  walks  and  drives  and  flower  beds,  its 
own  emergency  hospitals  and  dispensaries  and  siu-geries, 
its  own  Y.M.C.A.,  its  own  Red  Cross  unit,  generally 
its  own  K.  of  C.  workers  and  its  own  Salvation  Army 
squad;  as  likely  as  not  its  own  newspaper  and  its  own 
theater.    Always  it  has  its  own  separate  communal  life."  *■ 

The  soul  of  a  community.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nation  the  community  was  pointed  out  as  the  strategic 
part  of  the  new  democracy.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  it  was  the  different  commimities  of  the  nation  that 
were  appealed  to,  to  give  up  men,  women,  experts,  and 
resources  for  the  preservation  of  this  democracy,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fighting  in  France  it  was  the  com- 
munity which  formed  the  basis  for  all  supplies  and  from 
which  the  American  army  might  move  into  battle. 

As  the  nation  found  its  soul  by  unifying  its  spirit  and 
setting  it  to  work  heroically  for  humanity  to  avenge  the 
outraged  women  and  children  of  Belgium,  to  check  the 
ruthless  vandalism  in  France,  the  massacre  of  helpless 
Christians  in  Armenia,  the  sinking  of  hospital  ships  and 
merchant  vessels  on  the  high  seas,  the  destruction  of 
undefended  cities,  and  the  unmentionable  and  irreparable 
woes  inflicted  on  an  unsuspecting  world  by  the  con- 
scienceless Prussian  government,  so  shall  the  community 
find  its  soul  by  organizing  its  spirit  and  setting  it  to  work 
for  humanity,  making  the  commimity  better,  instilling 
a  love  of  law  and  order  in  its  citizens,  raising  the  moral 

1  "The  Trail  of  the  Snake,"  Saturday  Evening  Post,  August  31,  1918. 


62        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

level,  dispelling  ignorance  and  illiteracy,  and  providing 
for  the  happiness  and  the  well-being  of  all. 

Selfishness  is  often  the  result  of  isolation.  Lack  of 
cooperation  and  petty  rivalries  soiind  the  death  knell 
of  any  community.  The  great  purpose,  therefore,  of 
the  school,  the  heart  of  the  community,  is  to  save  its 
sotd  and  make  its  heart  beat  in  unison  with  the  heart 
of  the  nation  and  the  heart  of  the  world. 

Topics  for  discussion.  What  lessons,  therefore,  may 
the  teacher  derive  from  the  nation's  preparing  for  war? 
How  many  agencies  that  the  nation  employed  can  the 
teacher  employ  in  building  a  community  school?  When 
can  it  be  said  that  a  community  has  fotmd  its  soul,  or 
that  a  school  has  found  its  soul  ?  How  was  the  principle 
"Every  citizen  an  acting  member  of  the  government" 
applied  to  America's  preparing  for  war? 


PART  II 
DEMOCRACY  IN  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS 


The  Spirit  of  Democracy  in  the  Worid 

Never  before  in  history  has  the  task  of  education  been  so  seriously 
considered  as  in  the  past  century  under  the  more  complete  reali- 
zation of  the  meaning  of  all  the  revolutionary  movements  of  the 
modem  world.  Religious  revolution,  from  the  Reformation  down 
to  the  present,  shows  clearly  that  human  life  is  moving  on  toward 
an  ideal  of  freedom  from  the  arbitrary  dogmas  and  authorities  of 
the  past.  PoUtical  revolution  brings  home  to  men  continuously 
the  fact  that  there  is  no  halting-place  short  of  the  life  of  reason. 
Industrial  changes  are  demonstrating  that  old  distinctions  between 
the  educated  and  uneducated  classes  can  no  longer  be  maintained 
along  economic  lines.  And  the  intellectual  revolution  is  simply 
gathering  up,  organizing,  generalizing,  and  applying  these  great 
realizations  to  the  ever-widening  spheres  of  living.  Education  must 
turn  them  all  to  the  uses  of  living  and  the  preparation  for  more 
intelligent  living. 

— Joseph  Kinmont  Hart,  Democracy  in  Education 


CHAPTER  VIII 

A  NATIONAL  IDEAL 
A  New  Ideal  for  the  School 

There  could  be  no  more  cynical  conclusion  of  this  war  than  for 
those  of  us  who  are  allies  to  defeat  the  German  army  on  the  field  of 
battle,  to  surrender  in  the  process  to  the  ideas  that  have  taken  the 
Germans  captive  and  sent  them  into  this  contest.  It  is  as  necessary 
for  us  to  defeat  the  spirit  of  might  and  militarism  in  our  own  hearts 
and  in  our  own  land,  in  our  own  economic  and  industrial  organiza- 
tion, as  it  is  to  prevent  it  from  conquering  on  the  field  of  battle. 
That  is  the  dilemma,  that  is  the  difficulty  which  confronts  us. 

—  Nicholas  Murray  Butler 

Let  us  make  up  our  minds  right  here  that  tmless  we  can  through 
the  schools  inculcate  and  enlarge  the  concepts  of  citizenship,  not 
simply  will  the  schools  lose  their  hold  on  the  community,  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  not  doing  what  they  were  set  up  to  do,  but 
the  nation  will  lose. 

—  Albert  Bushnell  Hart 

In  the  old  view,  the  fvmction  of  education  was  to  develop  the 
ability,  improve  the  habits,  form  the  character  of  the  individual,  so 
that  he  might  prosper  in  his  life's  activities  and  conform  to  certain 
social  standards  of  conduct.  The  idea  emphasized  in  the  citizenship 
conception  is  that  individual  and  social  welfare,  happiness,  and 
righteousness  depend  more  largely  than  ever  before  recognized 
upon  the  relations  existing  between  persons  and  classes  in  institu- 
tional life.  Therefore  education  has  a  new  work,  that  of  clarifying 
the  basal  principles  of  this  relationship  and  of  giving  information 
concerning  the  very  complex  relations  in  society,  and  a  new  aim, 
foimd  in  social  motive. 

—  Paul  Monroe 


What  will  be  the  ideal  of  the  nations?  When  the 
revolutions  of  a  century  ago  came  to  an  end  in  1815,  it 
was  the  ideal  of  freedom  maintained  successfully  by 
America  that  became  the  "pillar  of  cloud  by  day"  to 
lead  the  nations  of  the  world,  through  the  period  of 

65 


66        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

readjustment  in  the  swift  years  that  followed,  to  a  more 
democratic  form  of  government.  And  when  the  world 
was  passing  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death 
created  by  the  World  War,  that  ideal  became  a  "pillar 
of  fire"  to  lead  a  stricken  world  to  victory. 

But  now  the  war  is  over,  and  the  peoples  of  every 
continent  must  again  readjust  themselves  to  another 
order,  which,  in  many  respects,  will  be  just  as  new  and 
just  as  strange  as  that  which  followed  the  revolutions 
of  a  century  ago.  And  this  new  program  applies  to 
America  as  well  as  to  the  war-stricken  countries  of  Europe. 
What  ideal  will  guide  humanity  through  this  readjust- 
ment? Will  it  be  the  American  ideal,  or  will  the  leader- 
ship pass  to  one  of  the  nations  that  has  been  most  sorely 
afflicted?  Can  we  maintain  the  standard  erected  for 
this  nation  by  the  other  nations  of  the  world  on  July  4, 
1918? 

What  will  be  the  American  ideal?  In  the  Trojan 
War,  the  Greeks  fought  valiantly  and  victoriously  so 
long  as  they  saw  their  own  gods  hovering  above  them 
and  battling  with  them.  But  when  they  beheld  their 
divinities  deserting  them  and  indirectly  giving  encoiu*- 
agement  to  their  enemies,  then  they  withdrew  to  their 
tents  until  there  could  be  a  reconciliation. 

The  time  has  come  for  every  nation  to  seek  earnestly 
for  that  reconciliation  with  an  ideal  that  alone  can  lead 
the  world  to  paths  of  peace.  Which  nation  in  the  years 
to  come  will  hold  aloft  that  ideal? 

At  the  beginning  of  the  World  War,  a  form  of  autoc- 
racy, it  is  said,  was  growing  up  in  American  life  that 
was  reaching  to  the  very  foimdations  of  our  social  order 
and  threatening  the  destruction  of  the  liberties  of  the 
American'people.    Political  freedom  has  been  won.    But 


A  NATIONAL  IDEAL  67 

economic  freedom,  industrial  freedom,  and  equality  of 
opportunities  for  all  people  everywhere  must  yet  be  won 
that  the  weak  may  find  encouragement  and  hope  and  the 
strong  may  be  released  to  do  and  to  achieve  in  order  that 
right  and  justice  may  prevail.  But  the  old  form  of 
individual  liberty  is  gone  forever  in  organized  society. 
A  new  freedom  preserved  through  a  form  of  cooperation 
is  already  at  hand.  Then  what  ideal  will  America  hold 
up  for  the  guidance  of  the  world? 

How  can  the  school  cooperate? 

Effect  of  national  ideals  on  the  school.  The  school  is 
the  institution  of  all  civilized  governments  having  as 
its  distinct  purpose  the  preservation  of  the  best  tradi- 
tions of  society  and  the  promotion  of  individual  and 
social  progress  in  the  direction  of  the  national  ideal. 
What  were  the  traditions  and  national  ideals  of  Germany 
before  the  war  ?  Whatever  they  were,  they  gave  character 
to  the  educational  institutions  which  reacted  again  on  the 
nation.  What  are  the  traditions  and  the  national  ideals 
of  America?  They,  too,  give  character  to  America's 
educational  institutions  which  react  again  on  the  nation. 

Democracy  is  on  trial  in  this  coimtry  as  it  is  not  on 
trial  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  and  during  the  war 
the  consciousness  of  this  fact  caused  great  captains  of 
industry  to  close  their  offices  and  give  their  services  to 
the  nation  with  no  hope  of  material  reward  save  that 
which  comes  from  the  energies  of  a  free  people.  It 
caused  leaders  of  great  labor  organizations  to  counsel 
labor  to  lay  aside  its  grievances  and  give  unstintingly, 
for  if  America  had  failed,  the  rights  of  capital  as  well 
as  those  of  labor  would  have  been  destroyed.  Women 
left  their  accustomed  tasks  and  gave  their  time  and 


68  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

energy,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  that  freedom  might 
not  die  and  Uberty  vanish  from  the  earth.  But,  since 
the  war  is  over,  will  the  leaders  in  society  fall  back  into 
the  old  ruts  that  seemed  to  be  grooved  by  an  autocratic 
hand?  It  is  at  this  point  that  a  just  reconstruction  in 
America  must  be  made. 

This  enthusiasm  for  the  preservation  of  our  democratic 
institutions  is  reacting  on  the  school.  People  are  urged 
everywhere  to  keep  the  schools  open  and  to  strengthen 
every  part  of  this  system,  to  breathe  anew  the  spirit 
into  every  social  institution,  and  to  build  up  the  com- 
mimity  aroimd  the  school. 

It  is  now  predicted  that  America  will  become  the 
seminary  in  which  the  nations  will  find  that  instruction 
which  will  breathe  this  modem  spirit  of  democracy  into 
the  old  monarchical  nations  of  the  world,  and  that 
American  colleges  and  universities  will  become  the  edu- 
cational centers  of  the  world  during  the  period  of  recon- 
struction that  is  to  follow. 

Few  will  wish  to  attend  the  German  imiversities. 
Those  of  Belgium  have  been  destroyed.  France  and 
England  have  already  begun  to  reorganize  theirs,  and, 
since  one  result  of  the  war  was  to  make  the  world  safe 
for  democracy,  students  of  government,  sociology,  poli- 
tics, and  education  will  seek  light  in  educational  insti- 
tutions that  are  the  product  of  a  democracy.  Already 
representatives  from  England,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan 
have  been  in  America  studying  its  educational  institu- 
tions with  a  view  to  a  reorganization  of  their  systems. 

But  what  will  they  find  in  American  education  to  guide 
them  from  year  to  year?  Will  the  American  ideal  lead 
the  school  to  aid  in  this  great  reconstruction?  What 
defects  exist  now  that  must  be  cured? 


A  NATIONAL  IDEAL  69 

The  purpose  of  Part  I  of  this  book  was  to  outline  the 
growth  of  democxracy  and  of  autocracy  in  goveniment 
from  the  Declaration  of  Independence  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War,  and  to  show  how  these  two  methods 
of  control  appeared  to  the  world  at  the  end  of  the  war. 
The  verdict  of  mankind  is  unmistakable.  The  methods 
of  autocracy  have  become  so  despicable  in  the  sight  of 
such  a  large  percentage  of  the  people  of  the  world  that 
its  appearance  in  any  other  part  of  otu:  social  life  will 
meet  with  serious  consequences. 

What  is  the  method  of  control  in  our  educational 
institutions?  Is  it  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  the 
school?  How  far  is  there  inconsistency  in  theory  and 
practice?  Since  about  90  per  cent  of  the  peoples  of  the 
world  have  decided  against  autocracy  and  in  favor  of 
democracy,  the  educational  institutions  of  the  greatest 
democracy  in  the  world  should  become  fit  to  lead  the 
world's  progress  in  the  direction  of  the  world  ideal. 

Task  of  the  teacher.    What  then  is  the  teacher's  task? 

1.  To  make  educational  administration  square  by  the 
principles  laid  down  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
and  the  preamble  to  the  Constitution. 

2.  To  build  up  American  communities  by  making 
every  citizen  an  acting  member  of  the  government  and 
a  partner  in  the  energies  of  the  school. 

3.  To  promote  the  progress  and  development  of  all 
the  children  of  all  the  people  by  so  directing  formal 
instruction  that  none  shall  be  neglected. 

4.  To  preserve  the  best  traditions  of  all  races  every- 
where in  order  that  right  and  justice  may  be  the  shib- 
boleth of  mankind  and  evil  may  perish  from  the  earth 
forever. 


CHAPTER  IX 

AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Autocrat  in  School 

A  dictator  like  Diaz  of  Mexico  may  run  the  organization  very 
well  for  a  long  time,  but  he  does  not  develop  associates  who  can  take 
his  place  when  he  drops  out.  When  he  drops  out,  the  system  goes 
to  pieces.  The  "Great  man"  theory  of  sociology  is  subject  to  the 
weakness  that  it  does  not  provide  any  method  by  which  the  man 
wUl  train  up  succeeding  great  men  to  take  his  place. 

—  Leonard  P.  Ayers 

Your  committee  is  alarmed  bjj-  the  lack  of  democracy  in  the  con- 
duct of  our  schools.  Our  American  school  system  is  administered 
autocratically,  the  teachers  actually  on  the  job  in  the  classrooms 
having  a  negligible  voice  in  the  determination  and  carrying  out  of 
policies.  Self-governing  school  and  district  councils  of  teachers 
should  be  estabUshed  for  the  piirpose  of  utilizing  the  experience  and 
initiative  of  the  teaching  body  in  the  conduct  of  the  schools  and  the 
recommendations  of  such  councils  should  be  made  a  matter  of  official 
record.  When  consideration  is  given  the  effective  part  played  by 
the  Prussian  School  System  in  the  development  of  the  habit  of 
instinctive,  unthinking  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  masses  of  the 
people,  the  vital  importance  to  American  institutions  of  breaking 
away  from  Prussian  methods  in  our  school  system  is  driven  home. 
— From  Report  of  Committee  on  Education  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  Bufifalo,  19 17 

Is  school  administration  too  autocratic?  The  charge 
is  made  that  the  administration  of  public  education  is 
too  autocratic.  This  charge  is  made  in  the  face  of  the 
facts  that  the  teacher  instructs  the  pupils  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  democratic  government,  that  America  has 
always  fought  autocracy  and  tyranny,  and  that  the  world 
to-day  is  certainly  warring  against  those  very  evils. 

The  autocrat  in  education  is  a  relic  perhaps  of  that 
period  of  the  nineteenth  century  when  great  industrial 

70 


AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION        71 

and  commercial  institutions  were  organized  along  feudal 
lines  and  the  officials  at  the  head  were  all-powerfxil.  Then 
absolute  obedience  was  the  highest  virtue,  and  unques- 
tioning subservience  to  policies  promulgated  by  irrespon- 
sible officials  the  chief  mark  of  loyalty  to  the  institution. 

Democracy  versus  autocracy.  ' '  Democracy  intends  the 
actual  release  of  all  the  energies  of  every  individual  for 
the  enrichment  of  the  personal  and  social  life  of  all."^ 
The  ptirpose,  therefore,  of  democracy,  whether  in  the 
school,  the  community,  the  state,  the  nation,  or  in  any 
other  social  or  industrial  corporation,  should  be  to  set 
free  the  energies  of  the  people  embraced  within  that 
social  unit,  and  not  to  use  these  energies  for  the  personal 
profit  or  glory  of  those  in  authority. 

The  world  has  just  been  engaged  in  a  life-and-death 
struggle  between  autocracy  and  democracy.  The  chal- 
lenge was  flung  down  by  the  former.  But  oiu:  hope,  our 
beHef ,  now  is  that  the  world  will  be  made  safe  for  democ- 
racy. The  issue  is  so  serious  that  autocracy  everywhere 
is  on  the  defensive,"  and  if  a  question  is  raised  against 
school  administration,  the  education  of  the  children  will 
be  retarded  until  the  administration  carries  out  the 
ideals  of  the  people.  The  principles  laid  down  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  in  the  preamble  to 
the  Constitution  should  apply  to  educational  institutions 
as  well  as  to  political  institutions. 

It  is  easier  for  a  man  to  sit  on  his  throne  and  issue 
commands  from  the  chair  to  his  dependents  than  it  is 
to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  every  co-worker,  call  out  the 
initiative  of  each,  and  utiHze  the  combined  energies  of 
all.  It  is  along  this  line  that  the  great  progress  of  the 
world  has  followed.     The  autocrat  is  always  in  danger  of 

1  Joseph  Kimmont  Hart,  Democracy  in  Education. 


72  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

a  revolution.  The  sword  of  Damocles  is  ever  hanging 
just  above  his  head. 

It  is  not  the  ptirpose  here  to  discuss  the  method  of 
selecting  the  administrator.  Every  state  has  provided 
its  own  peculiar  method  of  choosing  school  officers.  The 
great  question  for  each  to  answer  is  how  the  energies  of 
all  the  people  in  the  organization,  or  those  related  to  it, 
are  being  utilized. 

The  greatest  anomaly  in  our  social  organization  is 
the  existence  of  two  hostile  factions  in  the  same  insti- 
tution— the  rulers  and  the  ruled;  the  former  trjring  to 
exact  servile  obedience  from  the  latter,  and  the  latter 
trying  to  break  the  power  of  the  former.  It  is  found 
sometimes  in  the  industrial  world,  and  we  have  strikes 
and  lockouts  and  loss  of  energy.  It  is  also  found  some- 
times in  educational  institutions,  and  boards  of  education 
and  superintendents  selected  by  them  are  at  variance, 
each  seeking  to  crush  the  power  of  the  other.  Moreover, 
superintendents  and  teachers  are  sometimes  in  opposite 
camps,  teachers  are  dissatisfied  and  rebellious,  the  chil- 
dren are  being  neglected,  and  society  is  suffering. 

A  good  community  school.  What  is  a  good  community 
school  ?  This  is  perhaps  one  of  the  hardest  questions  that 
society  has  to  answer,  because  its  results  are  spiritual 
rather  than  material.  It  is  something  that  is  felt  rather 
than  seen  in  a  community.  No  one  has  ever  drawn  up 
a  perfect  bill  of  indictment  against  a  poor  school,  because 
its  most  vital  parts  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  formula.  On 
this  account  a  school  may  continue  to  decline  for  years 
before  a  revolution  breaks  out  and  destroys  it  completely. 

One  of  the  best  evidences,  however,  of  a  good  school 
is  the  harmony,  the  partnership  of  energies,  of  the  admin- 
istration, the  teachers,  the  pupils,  and  the  citizens  of  the 


AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION        73 

commtinity.  Each  of  these  should  be  aware  of  this 
truth,  and  it  is  the  great  duty  of  the  administration  to 
secure  this  partnership.  If  it  fails  here,  the  school  fails. 
If  a  democracy  cannot  advance  beyond  the  support  of 
the  united  opinion  of  mankind,  so  a  community  school 
cannot  advance  beyond  the  support  of  the  teachers,  the 
pupils,  and  the  cooperation  of  the  citizens,  it  matters 
not  how  fine  the  theories  are,  nor  how  well  the  organized 
leaders  of  the  country  support  them  for  the  time. 

Evidence  of  undemocratic  administration  in  schools. 
Boards  of  education  have  at  times  tied  the  hands  of  super- 
intendents and  sought  to  impress  upon  all  the  lamentable 
fact  that  all  power  was  vested  in  the  board.  More- 
over, superintendents  have  had  mistaken  notions  of 
their  own  power,  and  teachers  in  both  the  city  schools 
and  the  rural  schools  have  in  the  past  had  too  little 
voice  in  making  the  laws  and  rules  of  the  schools  under 
which  they  work.  They  have  been  too  much  like  the 
"hired  hands"  of  the  industrial  organizations.  It  is 
therefore  not  surprising  that  they  have  followed  in  some 
instances  the  example  of  labor  ia  organizing  into  unions 
or  bodies  of  protest  in  order  to  force  autocratic  admin- 
istrators to  hsten  to  reports  of  abuses  which  seem  to 
them  to  be  intolerable.  This  tendency  instead  of  decreas- 
ing has  been  increasing,  as  the  records  of  some  of  the 
larger  cities  and  of  many  counties  will  show. 

Poor  administrators  have  impaired  the  usefulness  of 
more  than  one  school  by  the  following  methods  of  control : 

The  administrative  officers  prepare  outlines  and  syllabi 
independently  of  the  teachers  and  require  them  to 
accept  them.  They  command  pupils  to  mark  time  imtil 
they  see  fit  to  promote  them.  They  standardize  and 
strain  after  national  tmiformity  without  ever  consulting 


74        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

the  needs  of  the  community  or  the  individual  teachers. 
They  use  arbitrary  methods  of  classif5ring  competent 
and  incompetent  teachers,  leaving  the  w^ay  open  for 
favoritism  and  the  invasion  of  self-seeking  persons. 
They  discourage  and  even  prohibit  any  attempt  of  the 
teacher  to  carry  up  to  the  governing  board  any  school 
policy,  and  the  opinion  of  one  administrator  outweighs 
the  combined  opinion  of  the  entire  teaching  force  of  the 
school,  for  too  often  it  is  considered  a  gross  breach  of 
etiquette  and  of  sound  professional  ethics  for  a  teacher 
or  a  group  of  teachers  to  lay  any  matter  before  the 
board  of  control. 

When  teachers  in  sympathy  with  the  new  day  and 
with  the  dream  of  youth  attempt  to  organize  himian 
energies  into  agencies  for  righteousness  and  progress, 
they  are  too  often  confronted  with  the  obstruction  of  a 
supervisor  or  principal  who  "through  sheer  fear  of  what 
he  does  not  understand  through  shortsighted  vindictive- 
ness  calls  upon  higher  power  for  aid."  The  result  is 
that  the  teacher  is  generally  disciplined  for  "starting 
something"  in  the  system. 

Such  a  condition  makes  a  good  teacher  helpless  under 
a  martinet  parading  in  the  garments  of  a  principal  or 
superintendent.  It  perpetuates  bad  management  until 
the  school  becomes  so  demoralized  that  only  a  revolution 
in  the  community  can  correct  the  evil. 

Autocratic  control  of  teachers  is  just  as  dangerous  to 
the  school  as  autocratic  control  of  government  is  danger- 
ous to  the  liberties  of  a  people.  It  is  out  of  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

Why  teachers  should  study  democratic  administration. 
These  conditions  make  it  necessary  for  teachers  to  make 
a  careful  study  of  democratic  administration  in  order 


AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION        75 

that  the  initiative  and  energies  of  the  strong  teachers 
may  be  used  cooperatively  and  that  the  weak  and  timid 
may  not  be  forgotten  in  the  system.  Teachers'  meetings, 
institutes,  normal  schools,  and  colleges  should  devote 
considerable  time  to  this  subject. 

If  the  people  of  a  commimity  should  be  taught  lessons 
in  self-government,  certainly  teachers  should  be  instructed 
in  a  subject  that  virtually  concerns  them  personally. 
The  trouble,  however,  has  been  that  whenever  the  head 
of  the  school  is  an  autocrat  or  a  martinet,  the  stronger 
teachers  have  been  too  greatly  tempted  to  follow  lines 
that  gave  them  personal  advantage.  Not  having  been 
instructed  in  methods  of  self-government  that  give  the 
best  teamwork,  they  have  tended  to  become  selfish 
individuaKsts,  and  when  they  have  been  forced  to  organ- 
ize, it  has  been  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  evils  that 
have  become  intolerable  in  an  autocratic  regime.  And 
an  organization  perfected  to  voice  continually  a  protest 
has  only  a  temporary  value,  for,  when  one  evil  has  been 
corrected,  the  protesting  body,  having  no  definite  objective, 
may  fall  into  mischief  and  become  a  menace. 

The  forgotten  teacher.  One  of  the  most  pathetic 
figures  in  all  society  is  the  teacher  who  has  been  lost  in 
the  system  and  forgotten,  save  that  he  or  she  fits  like  a 
small  cog  in  a  vast  machine  and  clicks  automatically 
with  the  school  clock.  Her  voice  is  never  heard  in  the 
coimcils,  her  opinion  is  never  asked,  and  her  responses 
come  only  in  reply  to  commands.  Being  subject  to  the 
order  of  the  chief,  she  has  been  dwarfed  into  the  form  of 
a  slave;  she  may  develop  all  the  tendencies  of  the  slave 
and  measiu-e  her  labor  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 
and  her  efficiency  and  sense  of  responsibiUty  to  the  com- 
munity by  the  size  of  her  pay  check. 


76  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Who  has  not  seen  the  timid  teacher  with  the  desire 
to  be  a  factor,  to  count  for  something,  to  be  considered 
worth  while,  but  with  a  lack  of  confidence  in  her  own 
powers  and  with  a  sense  of  her  own  unworthiness,  enter- 
ing the  system  for  the  first  time?  She  is  assigned  to  a 
room  and  then  forgotten.  The  teachers  aroimd  her,  too 
much  interested  in  their  own  self-preservation  in  the 
autocratic  regime,  have  no  time  to  devote  to  her.  The 
supervisors  come  and  go  and  shake  their  heads.  She 
is  even  afraid  to  enter  the  presence  of  the  superintendent 
who  sits  on  his  awful  throne  and  rules  the  empire  of  the 
school.  She  is  the  one  solitary,  pathetic  figure  of  the 
educational  world. 

A  teacher  is  made  or  marred  by  the  spirit  of  the  school 
and  the  community.  And  the  administrators  should  be 
judged  by  the  same  spirit.  Many  a  timid  woman  who 
had  buried  forever,  as  she  thought,  her  visions  in  an 
autocratic  system  has  drifted,  after  being  dropped  as  a 
failiu-e,  into  new  environments  far  removed  from  the 
scene  of  her  buried  hopes.  There,  under  the  spell  of 
freedom  and  the  invigorating  stimulus  of  cooperation, 
her  drooping  spirits  revived,  joy  and  hope  of  a  paradise 
regained  gave  her  renewed  courage,  and  "once  more  she 
hummed  joyously  on  her  way  to  school,  once  more  she 
began  to  dream  dreams;  and  once  more  she  saw  little 
ones  imder  the  spell  of  her  teaching,  and  sympathy 
come  to  life." 

Who  has  not  seen  this  descent  into  the  inferno?  Who 
has  not  seen  this  transformation? 

A  lesson  from  revolution  in  business.  Educational 
executives  and  administrators  have  much  to  learn  from 
the  changes  taking  place  in  the  administration  of  large 
industrial   institutions.    A   century   ago   directors   and 


AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION        77 

stockholders  looked  upon  large  industrial  institutions 
as  their  private  property,  to  be  conducted  in  any  manner 
that  suited  the  officers  and  stockholders.  However, 
thoughtful  people  have  reached  the  conclusion  that 
there  are  three  partners  in  the  business — (i)  the  stock- 
holders and  directors,  (2)  the  laborers,  and  (3)  the  public 
— and  that  the  business  shall  be  conducted  so  as  to  insure 
the  interests  of  all  three  parties.  As  a  restdt,  disputes 
arising  between  any  two  of  the  parties  are  no  longer  left 
to  the  warring  factions,  if  the  interest  of  the  other  party 
is  in  any  way  jeopardized.  Hence  we  find  boards  of 
arbitration  composed  of  representatives  from  the  three 
factions  interested  whose  duties  are  to  safeguard  the 
interests  of  all. 

Another  way  in  which  the  industrial  organization  is 
correcting  many  of  its  former  methods  is  through  the 
employment  manager.  Says  Mr.  Meyer  Bloomfield: 
"For  years  criticism  has  been  rife  of  the  wasteful  coming 
and  going  of  workers  in  and  out  of  various  shops.  But 
there  was  little  systematic  effort  from  the  side  of  indus- 
try to  deal  with  this  disease  of  'labor  turn  over,'  as  we 
have  now  learned  to  call  it.  In  the  past  there  was  no 
attempt  at  a  record  of  reasons  why  men  quit  work.  But 
now  business  is  seeking  to  learn  all  about  this  and  to 
correct  the  evil."* 

Irresponsible  "hiring"  and  "firing"  are  being  abolished. 
The  best  brains  and  personalities  are  being  selected  to 
deal  with  this  problem.  Universities  like  Harvard, 
Coltunbia,  Pennsylvania,  Rochester,  and  Dartmouth 
are  giving  special  courses  in  this  work  to  picked  groups 
of  men  and  women.  Mr.  Bloomfield  concludes:  "The 
basic  idea  of  employment  management  is,  and  this  applies 

^  American  Federalionist,  September,  1918. 


78        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

both  to  public  and  private  enterprises,  that  the  work 
contract  is  one  of  the  most  precious  contracts  in  a  man's 
life;  that  only  trusted  and  competent  persons  can  be 
entrusted  with  handling  the  matters  which  fall  within 
its  scope;  that  the  coming  and  going  of  workers  in  any 
establishment  is  a  sign  that  something  is  radically  wrong 
and  needs  correction;  and  that  executives  who  will  not 
build  an  Employment  System  which  satisfies  the  sense 
of  self-respect  and  personality  in  workers  will  have  to 
give  way  to  those  who  do." 

A  warning.  The  teaching  profession  has  not  yet 
attained,  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  the  prominence  that 
it  is  to  receive  if  this  nation  moves  forward  very  greatly. 
While  teaching  was  a  vocation  that  required  little  skill  or 
demanded  no  special  fitness  on  the  part  of  those  who 
engaged  in  it,  people  would  give  little  heed  to  what 
teachers  as  a  class  thought  or  did.  But  it  is  fast  becoming 
a  specialized  occupation  or  profession,  and  just  as  the 
artisan  and  other  skilled  workers  necessary  to  the  life  of 
the  world  had  to  organize  for  protection,  so  the  teacher,  as 
his  skill  and  technical  training  increase  and  as  the  world 
feels  more  and  more  dependent  upon  his  skill  for  safety, 
will  doubtless  follow  the  old,  old  path  that  all  skilled 
workers  have  followed  since  the  Middle  Ages,  unless 
administrators  learn  a  lesson  from  the  revolutions  of 
society. 

Principals  and  superintendents  and  boards  of  control, 
therefore,  should  be  able  to  draw  a  lesson  from  the  busi- 
ness world.  They  may  study  with  profit  the  trend  of 
society  since  the  industrial  revolution,  how  the  great 
leaders  have  guided  the  world,  and  how  the  old  con- 
servatives have  obstructed  progress.  Moreover,  they 
may  learn  of  successful  administration  in  business,  in 


AUTOCRACY  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION        79 

religion,  in  politics,  and  even  in  education  in  order  to 
discern  the  secret  of  their  success.  Every  man  or  woman 
who  has  been  a  successful  leader  of  the  people  has  some- 
thing of  value  for  school  directors  to  learn — what  made 
them  great  leaders. 

But  we  already  have  fine  examples  of  cooperative 
administration  in  our  educational  institutions  which  will 
be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  X 

COOPERATION   IN  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 

Democracy  in  the  School 

The  administration  of  public  education  must  be  made  in  every 
possible  way  to  embody,  on  the  one  hand,  the  conservation  of 
democratic  control,  and,  on  the  other,  efficient  direction  and  exe- 
cution. —David  Snedden 

There  are  two  extreme  types  of  school  administration;  the  one 
mechanical  in  form  and  autocratic  in  process  and  practice,  the 
other  intelligent  in  form  and  cooperative  in  spirit  and  practice. 
....  My  experience  has  confirmed  me  in  my  confidence  in 
codperative  administration.  I  believe  we  ought  to  welcome  it; 
we  ought  to  get  together  and  study  methods  and  means  by  which 
we  may  all  profit  by  the  growing  desire  to  work  together  for  the  best 
things.  —Frank  E.  Spaulding 

The  principal  should  consider  the  teacher,  (i)  as  a  self -active 
agent  with  a  will  and  desires  of  his  own,  (2)  as  an  individual  working 
for  and  with  the  children  in  his  charge,  and  (3)  as  a  member  of  a 
school  carrying  out  a  more  or  less  definite  humanitarian  aim.  He 
must  respect  the  teacher's  individuality  and  yet  guide  his  self- 
activity;  he  must  not  only  allow  self-government,  but  he  must  also 
direct  it,  and  in  some  cases  even  develop  it  in  the  individual  who  is 
to  be  self-governed.  He  cannot,  with  efficiency,  sit,  command, 
and  issue  orders;  personal  vituperation  is  of  little  use;  gathering 
examination  marks  ends  in  mechanical  driving;  standing  on  one's 
dignity  is  useless  and  ridiculous.  The  principal  must  coSperate 
with  the  teachers,  aid  them,  correct  their  faults,  elevate  their  aims, 
and  do  this  without  disttirbing  the  delicate  web  of  human  contact 
and  sympathy  which  are  so  necessary  for  effective  work.  He  must 
take  them  as  he  finds  them.  He  cannot  get  rid  of  them,  discharge 
them,  or  otherwise  replace  them.  He  should  not  crush  initiative 
out  of  the  teachers  and  then  point  to  them  as  inefficient. 

— Felix  Arnold,  Text  Book  of  School  and  Class  Management 

How  the  schools  are  becoming  democratized.    One 

of  the  most  hopeful  signs  of  progress  in  education  is  the 
mcreasing  nimiber  of  evidences  of  intelligent  leadership — 

80 


COOPERATION  IN  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT         8i 

democratic  leadership  that  tends  to  organize  and  unify 
all  the  agencies  of  the  community. 

The  fact  that  the  trend  everywhere  is  to  make  the 
school  a  community  institution  is  one  striking  evidence 
of  progress.  Another  is  seen  in  the  growing  tendency 
to  reduce  the  number  of  the  members  of  school  boards 
to  a  small  working  unit,  to  break  up  that  old  clique  of 
committee  control,  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  school 
in  the  open,  and  to  keep  the  people  informed  of  every 
act  of  public  interest.  The  selection  of  small  boards  by 
the  people,  who  demand  that  they  shall  choose  experts 
who  can  manage  men  and  direct  properly  the  energies 
of  the  school,  is  a  striking  evidence  of  the  acceptance 
of  the  fact  that  leaders  must  be  selected  for  their  fitness 
to  lead,  and  managers  for  their  fitness  to  manage. 

How  school  management  is  being  democratized  may 
best  be  seen  by  observation  of  the  example  of  successful 
school  administrators. 

The  teachers'  council.  One  extreme  type  of  school 
administration  that  leads  to  a  mechanical  organization 
and  an  autocratic  process  and  practice  was  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter.  Successful  school  men,  however, 
have  demonstrated  that  a  cooperative  administration 
will  secure  better  results  and  give  tone  and  spirit  to  the 
system.  The  demand  for  such  an  administration  has 
led  superintendents  to  adopt  in  one  form  or  another  the 
teachers'  council,  which  is  found  in  modified  form  in 
Chicago,  New  York,  Boston,  Los  Angeles,  Portland, 
Minneapolis,  Cleveland,  and  other  cities. 

Superintendent  Frank  E.  Spaulding,  of  Cleveland,  in 
speaking  of  the  value  of  the  council,  says: 

We  have  a  teachers*  educational  council,  which  is  a  very  definite 
help  to  the  administration.     This  council  consists  of  twenty-six 


82  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

members,  representing  all  parts  of  the  city  and  all  grades  of  work. 
Through  the  council  we  get  the  ideas  of  the  teachers.  The  council 
considers  courses  of  study  or  anything  that  is  pertinent  to  the  admin- 
istration of  schools.  According  to  the  council's  rules  the  superin- 
tendent may  request  the  president  of  the  council  at  any  time  to  call 
a  meeting  for  the  consideration  of  any  subject  that  he  wishes  to 
bring  before  it;  also,  on  request  of  any  three  members  of  the  council, 
a  meeting  will  be  called  to  consider  any  matter  that  these  members 
wish  to  introduce. 

But  interchange  of  views  between  teachers  and  administration  is 
by  no  means  limited  to  the  teachers'  council.  Any  teacher  in  the 
city,  anyone  connected  with  the  schools,  is  invited  to  ask  any  per- 
tinent question  of  the  administration  over  signature,  or  anony- 
mously; any  question  that  seems  to  be  of  sufficient  general  interest 
will  be  discussed  publicly  by  the  superintendent  or  his  associates. 
Anyone  may  attend  such  discussion. 

The  teachers'  council  in  Los  Angeles.  Los  Angeles 
has  learned  how  to  set  free  the  teachers'  energies.  A 
definite  plan,  for  example,  has  been  worked  out  for 
creating  a  council  of  high-school  teachers  to  aid  the 
superintendent  in  the  management  of  the  high  schools 
of  the  city.  The  plan  as  pubHshed  in  American  Educa- 
tion for  1 918  is  as  follows: 

1.  The  council  consists  tentatively  of  the  superintendent  and 
seven  teachers,  one  of  whom  is  to  be  president  of  the  High  School 
Teachers  Association,  the  other  six  to  be  teachers  named  by  the 
president,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  executive  committee. 

2.  The  council  meets  at  stated  intervals,  to  be  determined  by  the 
cotmcil  itself. 

3.  The  council  may  discuss  any  matter  relating  to  high  schools 
or  intermediate  schools  concerning  which  the  superintendent  could 
properly  act  or  concerning  which  he  could  address  the  Board  of 
Education. 

4.  Members  of  the  council  may  take  the  initiative  in  introducing 
subjects  for  consideration. 

5.  Any  policies  of  the  superintendent  or  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion may  be  brought  up  in  the  council  for  criticism  so  long  as  the 
criticism  is  kept  within  the  proper  professional  boimds. 


COOPERATION  IN  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT         83 

6.  The  members  of  the  council  are  not  to  be  considered  as  repre- 
sentatives of  particular  schools  or  groups  of  teachers,  but  are  to 
approach  all  problems  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  relation  to  the 
entire  school  system. 

7.  The  methods  by  which  the  council  shall  keep  in  touch  with  the 
members  of  the  association  shall  be  worked  out  by  the  executive 
committee  of  the  association  cooperating  with  the  members  of  the 
council. 

8.  The  superintendent  in  becoming  a  member  of  the  council  is 
not  to  be  understood  as  abrogating  any  of  his  authority  under  the 
laws  of  the  state  and  the  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

9.  The  members  of  the  council  will  consider  themselves  under 
obligation  to  abstain  from  making  public  matters  discussed  in  the 
council  involving  the  character  and  fitness  of  individual  teachers. 

10.  The  president  in  appointing  members  of  the  council,  and  the 
executive  committee  in  confirming  them,  will  consider  only  the 
fitness  of  the  persons  named  to  pass  upon  questions  concerning 
high-school  and  intermediate  school  matters  in  an  intelligent  and 
broad-minded  professional  spirit. 

Criticism  of  the  council.  The  superintendent  of  the 
MinneapoHs  schools  says  that  where  adverse  criticism 
is  given  of  councils  it  is  along  the  following  lines: 

Too  little  interest  exhibited  by  the  mass  of  teachers  in  instructing 
their  council  representatives;  a  lack  of  balance  in  the  representation 
of  the  various  groups,  one  group,  such  as  elementary  schools,  hav- 
ing many  more  representatives  than  the  high-school  group;  and 
too  little  initiative  in  the  introduction  of  discussion.  These  flaws 
in  the  council  movement  can  easily  be  eliminated  before  organiz- 
ing by  carefully  surveying  the  conditions  which  exist  in  a  school 
system. ' 

The  idea  of  a  council  not  new.  The  idea  of  the  council 
is  not  new.  Dean  Stanley  says  of  Thomas  Arnold's 
management  at  Rugby:  "Every  three  weeks  a  cotmcil 
was  held,  in  which  all  school  matters  were  discussed, 
and  in  which  every  one  was  free  to  express  his  opinion, 

iSchool  Life,  July  i,  1919. 


84        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

or  propose  any  measure  not  in  contradiction  to  any 
fundamental  principle  of  the  school  administration,  and 
in  which  it  would  not  infrequently  happen  that  he  was 
himself  opposed  and  outvoted."^ 

How  the  Detroit  course  of  study  was  made.  Super- 
intendent Chadsey,  formerly  of  Detroit,  says  emphatically 
that  a  good  course  of  study  must  be  the  product  of  all 
teachers : 

It  is,  from  my  point  of  view,  ridiculous  to  assume  that  a  super- 
intendent, or  a  group  of  superintendents,  are  in  any  position  what- 
ever to  prepare  a  course  of  study  for  the  teachers  to  work  by.  Cer- 
tainly the  teachers  are  in  a  position  to  contribute  very  much  more 
to  this  course  of  study  than  any  supervisory  officer,  no  matter  how 
much  of  an  expert  he  may  be  in  theory,  because  they  are  every  day 
working  with  the  course  of  study  and  working  with  the  pupils,  and 
can  see  the  limitations  in  a  way  that  the  officer  cannot. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is,  I  think,  equally  true  that  your  expert 
official  has  a  certain  breadth  of  view  with  reference  to  the  course  of 
study,  and  certain  conceptions  concerning  the  fundamental  ideas 
and  ideals  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  final  eflEect  of  certain  lines 
of  work  upon  the  individual  which  the  grade  teacher,  the  individual 
teacher,  may  not  have;  and  there  should  be  a  recognition  of  that 
in  the  formation  of  the  course.  But  there  certainly  should  be  a 
free  opportunity  for  the  whole  experience  of  the  teacher  to  come 
into  it.2 

How  to  construct  a  course  of  study.  Mr.  Leonard  P. 
Ayers,  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foimdation,  is  even  more 
specific  on  this  subject  than  Superintendent  Chadsey. 
The  value  of  the  cooperation  of  all  the  teachers  is  espe- 
cially emphasized. 

One  way  to  construct  a  course  of  study  is  to  start  in  with  the 
teachers  and  by  a  long  and  rather  difficult  process  of  study,  con- 
ference, and  consultation  evolve  a  course  of  study.  It  will  take 
from  three  to  ten  times  as  much  work  to  make  the  new  course  with 

1  Life  of  Arnold. 

^The  American  Teacher,  October,  191 7. 


COOPERATION  IN  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT         85 

the  cooperation  of  the  teachers  as  it  will  to  make  it  at  headquarters 
without  them.  When  the  work  is  all  done,  the  course  of  study  wUl 
be  about  the  same  as  if  it  were  created  by  the  superintendent  alone. 
The  difference  is  that  the  process  of  making  it  has  been  enormously 
valuable  to  the  teachers.  When  the  work  is  done,  they  have  the 
personal  interest  in  the  course  of  study  and  feel  that  it  is  their  own 
product.  They  respect  it  and  believe  in  it.  This  is  the  way  that 
teamwork  is  developed  in  a  school  system.  The  schools  may  be 
run  efficiently  by  edict,  but  the  method  does  not  build  up  a  pro- 
gressive and  virile  organization.  1 

Democratic  control  in  Baltimore  County.  The  success 
of  the  Baltimore  Coimty  system  has  attracted  attention 
throughout  the  nation.  The  administration  of  Super- 
intendent A.  S.  Cook  has  looked  more  and  more  toward 
giving  the  teachers  a  larger  share  in  directing  the  policies 
of  the  system.  Every  teacher  is  a  member  of  a  group 
that  is  planning  and  executing  some  kind  of  work  for 
the  benefit  of  the  whole.  They  not  only  aid  in  working 
out  the  course  of  study,  but  they  may  even  select,  under 
certain  limitations,  such  parts  of  the  course  of  study  as 
they  can  teach  best. 

This  principle  of  co6peration  is  even  more  important 
in  a  coimty  system  than  in  a  city  system.  The  different 
parts  of  the  system  are  so  widely  scattered  that  imless 
the  spirit  of  cooperation  is  developed  there  cannot  be 
an  eflBcient  county  system. 

Application  of  principle  of  cooperation  to  reading  circles. 
Teachers  may  be  given  wide  latitude  in  selecting  the  pro- 
fessional reading  courses.  If  the  elective  system  is  good 
for  high-school  and  college  pupils,  the  same  principle 
should  be  observed  in  the  arrangement  of  reading  coiu"ses 
for  teachers.  It  is  too  often  the  case  that  a  superintendent 
or  a  central  board  outlines  with  specific  directions  the 

^Leonard  P.  Ayers,  ibid. 


86        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

entire  reading  course  for  teachers  without  giving  them 
any  voice  in  the  selection  of  courses  or  of  books  to  be 
read.  New  and  inexperienced  teachers  are  required  to 
study  the  same  courses  that  old,  experienced  teachers 
take,  with  little  regard,  sometimes,  for  their  immediate 
needs.  This,  of  course,  is  a  violation  of  the  modem 
principle  of  education  that  permits  less  mature  men 
and  women,  even  boys  and  girls,  to  select  subjects  that 
are  of  greater  value  to  them. 

It  is  the  personality  of  the  teacher  that  teaches  most, 
not  the  best  books.  The  major  purpose  of  all  teachers' 
training  cotu"ses,  therefore,  should  be  to  develop  person- 
ality, and  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  building  a  strong 
personality  is  initiative.  Hence  the  superintendent  who 
fails  to  make  all  the  teachers  acting  members  of  the 
government  fails  to  encourage  initiative. 

In  Durham  County,  North  Carolina,  the  reading 
course  for  teachers  is  divided  into  four  parts:  (i)  litera- 
ture, (2)  nature  or  science,  (3)  history  or  biography,  and 
(4)  strictly  professional  readings.  The  teachers,  with 
certain  restrictions,  are  permitted  to  make  their  selections 
— one  from  each  group.  Primary  teachers,  for  example, 
may  select  (i)  short  stories  suitable  for  oral  work,  (2)  the 
study  of  how  seeds  become  plants,  (3)  the  lives  of  heroes 
for  whom  holidays  are  observed,  and  (4)  how  to  use 
them  in  school. 

In  order  that  the  best  results  may  be  secured,  teachers 
are  divided  into  groups  of  clubs  according  to  the  way 
they  select  the  subjects  to  be  studied. 

A  reading  cotirse  for  teachers'  associations  should  be 
selected,  primarily,  not  with  reference  to  what  the  super- 
intendent or  principal  thinks  should  be  studied  during 
the  year,  but  with  regard  to  what  the  teacher  feels  he  or 


COOPERATION    IN  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT        87 

she  needs ;  for  if  the  teacher  does  not  derive  pleasure  from 
the  course,  it  is  very  likely  that  little  profit  will  result 
therefrom. 

It  is  proper,  of  course,  for  state  authorities  to  outline 
reading  courses  for  teachers.  It  is  necessary  for  principals 
and  superintendents  to  point  to  specific  weaknesses  in 
the  program  of  instruction  and  to  direct  the  reading  in 
such  a  way  as  to  correct  such  weaknesses.  All  this  can 
be  done  and  still  much  freedom  be  left  to  the  teacher  in 
selecting  those  courses  that  will  be  of  greatest  pleasure  as 
well  as  value  to  her. 

These  practices  are  evidences  of  democratic  control  in 
school  administration.  None  of  these  implies  that  every 
school  question  or  school  policy  shall  be  settled  by  popular 
vote.  Nor  do  they  imply  that  the  superintendent  and 
principal  shall  be  stripped  of  all  power,  but  they  all 
imply  that  the  greater  the  power  the  greater  is  the  obli- 
gation to  use  it  for  the  building  up  of  those  human 
agencies  that  must  cooperate  with  it  toward  a  desired  end. 

Experiences  of  successful  administrators  outside  of 
schools.  The  experiences  of  successful  administrators 
in  every  department  of  life  should  be  a  guide  to  the  rest 
of  mankind.  It  is  not  a  question  as  to  how  much  power 
shall  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  official.  We  may 
expect  broad  powers  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  impor- 
tant executives,  and  this  is  right.  But  the  question 
about  each  is.  How  does  he  use  that  power? 

This  nation,  during  the  war,  allowed  its  President  to 
have  almost  absolute  power  because  there  was  a  great 
crisis.  The  people  trusted  him  because  of  his  masterful 
leadership,  and  he  exhibited  extraordinary  ingenuity  then 
in  bringing  into  play  the  energies  of  all  the  people  in  the 
nation  with  one  aim  in  view — to  win  the  war.    Since 


88        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

that  task  has  been  accomplished,  however,  he  is  surren- 
dering much  of  his  authority  to  Congress  or  to  the  people 
direct.  Millions  of  men  have  already  returned  to  their 
accustomed  occupations — all  better  men,  let  us  hope, 
because  they  have  cooperated  in  a  most  sublime  cause. 

No,  it  is  not  power  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a 
superintendent  or  a  board  that  is  objectionable,  but  the 
autocratic  method  of  control.  And  these  defects  are 
found  as  often  in  the  colleges  and  imiversities  as  in  the 
administration  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

Educational  administrators  should  study  the  person- 
ality of  great  leaders,  their  methods  of  control,  and  how 
they  hold  such  power  over  the  world.  Mr.  Charles  M. 
Schwab,  for  example,  the  greatest  industrial  leader, 
perhaps,  that  this  nation  has  produced,  says: 

Nobody  ever  worked  for  me  but  many  thousands  have  worked 
with  me. 

Every  man  in  the  employment  of  the  corporation  is  a  real  partner. 

No  matter  how  good  a  workman  a  man  is,  I  want  his  soul  in  his 
work.     That  is  the  big  thing  and  that  is  what  we  must  encourage. 

The  way  to  develop  the  best  that  is  in  a  man  is  by  appreciation 
and  encouragement. 

I  consider  my  ability  to  arouse  enthusiasm  among  the  greatest 
assets  I  possess. 

The  example  of  other  great  leaders  should  be  studied 
— Christ,  Francis  of  Assisi,  Pestalozzi,  Thomas  Arnold, 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Gladstone,  Lincoln,  PhiUips 
Brooks,  Robert  E.  Lee,  and  the  successful  leaders  of  the 
people  of  to-day. 

Women  should  study  especially  the  great  women  who 
have  been  conspicuous  as  leaders  of  the  people.  What 
made  them  great  leaders?  Does  a  great  woman  leader 
possess  in  the  main  the  same  qualities  that  a  great  man 
leader  possesses? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    SPIRIT    OF    DEMOCRACY    IN    STUDENT 
MANAGEMENT 

Autocracy  in  Class  Management 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  a  democratic  government  ....  where 
the  citizens  are  self-governed,  the  government  of  the  schools  of 
those  same  citizens  is  now  and  always  has  been  autocratic;  that  is, 
the  children,  who  are  said  to  be  imder  training  for  future  citizenship 
and  self-government,  are  for  ten  or  fifteen  years  held  in  subjection 
by  an  autocrat  whose  highest  qualification  is  to  "hold  the  class," 
and  who  has  never  discovered  how  much  more  important  it  is  for 
the  purpose  of  a  self-governed  people  that  the  class  should  hold 
itself,  has  never  foimd  out  how  it  may  be  done,  and  so  has  no  plan 
whatever  for  operating  self-government.  This  attempt,  if  any 
discernible  attempt  has  been  made,  to  teach  self-government  by 
contraries  has  always  been  a  failure.  It  is  high  time  to  aim 
toward  oiu-  mark. 

— Henry  Lincoln  Clapp,  Master  Emeritus, 
George  Putnam  School,  Boston 

The  school  in  which  the  pupils  are  as  "dumb,  driven  cattle," 
doing  what  they  are  told,  when  they  are  told,  and  the  school  in 
which  the  pupils  do  what  they  please,  as  they  please,  when  they 
please,  represent  the  extremes  of  tyranny  and  Ucense,  and  in  neither 
type  is  there  adequate  opportimity  for  the  development  of  the  social 
virtues.  Through  the  organization  and  discipline  of  a  school  much 
can  be  done  to  afford  practice  in  effective  social  work  without  having 
scholarship  at  a  low  ebb,  or  responsibility  and  obedience  lost  sight  of. 

—  Lid  A  B.  Earhart 

Two  extremes  of  student  control.  The  greatest  lesson 
an  individual  learns  is  that  of  self-government.  The 
home  begins  the  instruction,  the  school  continues  it 
through  the  period  of  childhood,  and  then  the  state, 
through  its  law,  public  officials,  and  social  institutions, 
seeks  to  mature  it.  But  it  is  an  endless  process.  Those 
who  think  that  a  child  in  the  public  school  is  capable 

«9 


90  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  complete  self-government  and  that  the  regulation 
of  its  conduct  and  that  of  its  associates  may  be  turned 
over  absolutely  to  a  group  of  undeveloped  students  possess 
more  zeal  than  judgment. 

Moreover,  those  who  place  their  faith  in  the  old  auto- 
cratic type  of  schoolmaster,  whose  chief  duty  is  to  rule 
and  who  boasts  of  the  hundreds  he  has  conquered  even 
as  the  savage  boasts  of  the  number  of  scalps  hanging  at 
his  belt,  are  encouraging  the  reign  of  autocracy  in  the 
world  and  the  continuance  of  Prussianism  in  school 
management.  Neither  democracy  nor  autocracy  is 
taught  as  effectively  by  precept  as  by  example. 

These  two  extremes  of  control  are  in  evidence  in 
America  to-day.  The  first  is  usually  a  fad  and  passes 
in  the  same  way  as  other  social  fads  disappear.  The 
other  is  a  menace  to  good  government  and  a  hindrance 
to  the  right  education  of  the  youth.  This  latter  type  we 
find  too  often  in  the  schoolroom. 

"It  is  necessary,"  says  Thomas  Mott  Osborne  in  dis- 
cussing prison  reform,  "every  once  in  a  while  for  us  to 
have  what  might  be  called  a  spiritual  house-cleaning; 
and  it  is  particularly  necessary  at  times  like  the  present  — 
times  that  try  men's  souls — to  see  how  far  they  meet 
the  conditions  of  the  present  day;  to  recast  our  systems 
and  our  methods,  so  that  the  evil  that  men  are  doing 
may  be  eradicated,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  for  us  as  indi- 
viduals to  help." 

Student  management  inconsistent  in  theory  and  in 
practice.  We  have  held  it  as  a  principle  in  education 
that  the  most  effective  teaching  is  by  example,  that  the 
child  learns  most,  not  from  memorizing  precepts,  but  by 
doing.  Moreover,  we  teach  that  a  democracy  expressing 
itself  either  directly  or  through  its  representatives  is  the 


DEMOCRACY  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT        91 

best  form  of  government.  But  in  student  management 
the  pupils  are  too  often  treated  as  so  many  dependent 
subjects,  and  not  a  voice  is  raised  or  a  suggestion  offered 
or  an  opinion  expressed  by  them  in  regard  to  their  own 
welfare  except  as  a  protest  against  the  autocracy  of  the 
teacher. 

It  is  frequently  the  case  that  a  dictatorial  manner  is 
only  a  cloak  for  ignorance,  and  an  incompetent  teacher 
can  command  silence  or  issue  new  orders  when  in  doubt 
as  to  what  to  do.  As  the  best  rulers  in  the  political 
world  are  those  who  can  set  free  the  greatest  energies  of 
the  most  people,  so  the  best  teachers  are  those  who  can 
provide  the  most  liberty  for  the  greatest  free  play  of  the 
energies  of  children  in  the  schoolroom. 

A  lesson  from  prison  reforms.  It  is  because  imperial- 
ism, feudalism,  aristocracy,  and  paternalism  have  all 
been  tried  in  government  and  have  failed  that  the  world 
has  come  to  democracy.  For  this  reason  it  is  necessary 
for  schools  to  train  for  self-reliance  and  self-government. 
The  youth  of  America  must  be  trained  for  freedom  by 
being  made  able  to  utilize  freedom.  "It  is  liberty  alone 
that  fits  men  for  liberty,"  says  Gladstone. 

The  teacher  has  something  to  learn  from  reforms  in 
prison  management.  Thomas  Mott  Osborne  says  of 
the  introduction  of  a  democratic  spirit  in  prison  man- 
agement : 

We  started  in  Auburn  prison  a  wonderful  experiment  to  see 
whether  we  could  put  democracy  into  a  prison.  We  have  tried 
everything  else.  We  gave  to  the  Auburn  prisoners,  four  years  ago 
—  what?  Nothing  but  a  slight  modicum  of  individual  liberty. 
We  said,  "Within  this  room  you  may  act  like  human  beings";  and 
the  men  came  to  chapel  every  Sunday  at  Auburn  and  there  were 
no  longer  guards  around  the  room  to  see  that  no  man  turned  his 
head.    The  fourteen  hundred  prisoners  were  under  their  own  man- 


92  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

agement.  They  were  all  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  men, 
and  if  any  one  went  wrong,  then  the  community,  under  its  properly 
authorized  representatives,  dealt  with  the  offender;  and  just  that 
one  thing  lifted  those  men  from  the  ranks  of  convicts  —  convicted 
felons  —  back  into  the  realm  of  humanity 

Later,  of  course,  the  afternoon  at  the  chapel  expanded  to  after- 
noons daily  in  the  open  air,  in  the  sunshine  of  the  prison  yard;  and 
that  expanded  into  an  honor  camp,  with  twenty  prisoners,  one  of 
them  a  man  having  a  term  of  his  natural  life,  who  could  never  leave 
prison  unless  pardoned;  another  with  seventeen  years  still  to  do; 
another  with  fifteen,  and  so  on  down.  Twenty  of  these  men  were 
in  camp  for  three  months,  with  opportimity  to  nm  away  and  escape 
any  hour  of  the  day,  and  yet  not  one  took  advantage  of  it. 

One  of  the  longest  term  men  was  entrusted  with  money  which 
could  have  taken  him  to  Canada,  but  he  turned  his  back  resolutely 
upon  the  temptation  and  came  back  to  prison,  where  he  still  has 
many  years  to  serve  —  seventeen  years  that  man  had.  Thus  we 
found  a  new  life  coming  into  the  prison,  a  sense  of  responsibility 
where  there  had  been  none ;  a  power  of  self-government  that  nobody 
could  have  imagined  existed  in  these  men  whose  daily  life  had  been 
a  protest  against  restraint.^ 

This  method  of  democratic  management  was  put  into 
eflfect  with  the  boys  in  the  naval  prison  at  Portsmouth, 
and  similar  results  were  obtained  there  among  the  yoimg 
lads  who  were  imprisoned  chiefly  for  deserting,  or  over- 
staying their  time,  or  for  infractions  of  navy  regulations. 

There  is  a  tremendous  lesson  in  this  story  for  every 
teacher  of  America,  for  the  "blessed  principle  of  democ- 
racy" will  work  also  in  the  management  of  pupils. 

The  spirit  of  democracy  in  the  classroom.  One  of  the 
first  signs  of  democracy's  entering  the  classroom  was  the 
appearance  of  the  elective  system  in  our  high  schools  and 
colleges.  The  supervisors  of  education  in  Germany  could 
not  understand  this  feature  of  the  American  schools. 
They  hooted  at  the  idea  that  high-school  youths  can  make 

^Education,  June,  1918. 


DEMOCRACY  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT        93 

any  intelligent  selection  of  studies.  Autocracy  has 
always  been  unable  to  comprehend  the  power  of  democ- 
racy, and  even  autocratic  schoolmasters  to-day  are  not 
in  sympathy  with  the  elective  system,  nor  with  the 
democratic  tendencies  in  school  management. 

Democracy  in  school  management,  however,  does  not 
mean  turning  over  the  school  to  a  crowd  of  wild,  undis- 
ciplined, and  untrained  youths.  But  it  does  mean  that 
those  who  are  being  taught  shall  give  something  besides 
unqualified  obedience  to  the  school,  and  that  they  shall 
be  led  to  see  that  the  responsibility  of  making  the  school 
and  the  community  rests  upon  them  as  well  as  upon  the 
teachers  and  patrons. 

The  principle  of  the  "consent  of  the  governed"  may 
even  apply  to  pupil  management. 

Stages  in  the  growth  of  student  self-government. 
Self-government  comes  by  slow  stages.  It  is  a  subjective 
development,  not  something  imposed  from  without,  and 
the  school,  in  its  growth,  usually  passes  through  three 
stages  before  students  and  teachers  reach  that  high 
plane  on  which  the  students  may  meet  the  teacher  as 
partners  in  the  conduct  of  the  school — before  the  governed 
and  the  governors  are  one.  Three  phases  especially  of 
cooperation  in  student  management  for  teachers  to 
study  are : 

1.  Cooperation  in  the  selection  of  courses,  in  the 
conduct  of  the  recitation,  in  the  care  of  buildings  and 
grounds,  and  in  the  promotion  of  pupils. 

2.  Cooperation  of  teacher  and  pupils  outside  the  class- 
room in  such  a  way  as  to  promote  intellectual,  industrial, 
and  social  development  through  clubs  or  societies. 

3.  The  organization  of  the  entire  school  into  a  govern- 
ment representing  all  classes  of  students  cooperating  with 


94        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

the  teachers,  in  which  the  students  acting  as  citizens  of 
the  government  take  an  active  part  in  making  and  regu- 
lating school  policies  and  in  preserving  law  and  order  in 
the  school  community. 

All  teachers  may  enter  at  once  the  first  stage ;  a  majority 
of  the  teachers,  perhaps,  have  developed  sufficiently  to 
reach  the  second  stage.  But  few,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, have  the  experience  or  have  prepared  the  community 
for  this  third  stage.  However,  it  is  a  goal  toward  which 
the  school  should  move,  and  in  modified  forms  it  may  be 
obtained  by  all  good  administrators. 

Fine  theories  of  child  management  according  to  stages 
of  growth  are  spim,  sometimes,  when  teachers  make  a 
formal  study  of  the  child.  But  when  the  time  comes  for 
the  teacher  to  act,  there  seems  to  be  a  great  dread  lest 
the  child  at  the  first  opportunity  will  "beat"  the  teacher, 
that  it  will  avoid  the  difficult  tasks  and  select  the  easy 
ones;  and  as  a  result  the  old  implied  contract  between 
master  and  slave  is  entered  into. 

These  stages  will  be  treated  in  detail  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 

COOPERATION  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT 

Value  of  Cooperation  in  Government  of  Children 

If  we  train  our  children  to  take  orders,  to  do  things  because  they 
are  told  to,  and  fail  to  give  them  confidence  to  think  and  act  for 
themselves,  we  are  putting  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  overcoming  the  present  defects  of  our  system  and  of 
establishing  the  truth  of  democratic  ideals.         —  John  Dewey 

The  extent  to  which  pupils  may  participate  in  school  government 
with  benefit  to  themselves  and  to  the  school  will  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  school  and,  it  may  also  be  said,  with  the  nature  of 
the  principal.  Some  principals,  in  order  to  conduct  a  school  on 
such  a  plan,  would  have  to  be  made  over  because  of  their  predis- 
position to  exercise  control,  or  because  of  the  habit  of  absolute 
rule  formed  by  years  of  experience.  Wisdom,  patience,  tact,  all 
are  necessary  in  tmdertaking  and  carrying  out  the  plan  of  giving 
the  pupils  a  share  in  the  school  discipline  and  management. 

—  Lid  A  B.  Earhart 

In  this  school  there  are  twenty  clubs,  including  ctirrent  events, 
social  service,  dramatic,  camera,  student-welfare,  lend-a-hand, 
besides  those  devoted  to  the  various  subjects  of  study.  All  these 
various  activities,  from  the  quelling  of  the  disorder  in  the  study 
rooms  in  the  first  school  to  the  democratic  clubs  last  mentioned, 
have  been  carried  on  by  pupils  —  often  in  response  to  faculty  sug- 
gestions, to  be  sure,  but  always  with  a  rich  result.  Illustrations 
might  be  indefinitely  multiplied  from  the  best  schools  in  the  cotm- 
try.  It  is  notable  that  wherever  these  activities  are  strong  the 
problem  of  discipline  practically  disappears.  The  pity  is  that  such 
activities  are  not  generally  recognized  for  their  direct  value  for 
training  in  citizenship,  and  encouraged  as  an  essential  part  of  school 
life.  — William  D.  Lewis,  Democracy s  High-School 

In  school  centers,  in  college  settlements,  in  civic  settlements, 
the  time  arises  when  groups  of  boys  and  girls  or  young  men  and 
women  seem  to  feel  that  an  organization  or  league  may  be  formed 
in  which  they  may  further  their  growing  ideals  of  citizenship.  In 
the  public  schools  such  leagues  have  a  larger  field  for  activity  than 
anywhere  else.  The  teacher  may  set  forth  not  only  the  need  of  the 
organization,  but  the  method  of  forming  such  a  league,  and  the 
work  that  may  be  accomplished. 

— Mabel  Hill,  The  Teaching  of  Civics 

95 


96        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

The  first  phase  of  self-government.  In  both  classroom 
instruction  and  extra-classroom  activities  this  principle 
should  always  be  kept  in  view — that  the  aim  of  student 
management  is  to  produce  self-governing  and  self-reliant 
citizens.  Students,  therefore,  must  be  taught  to  have 
respect  for  authority,  for  this  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
But  how  far  students  shall  be  permitted  to  participate  in 
making  the  laws  under  which  they  are  to  be  governed, 
or  in  executing  the  laws  which  they  are  taught  to  obey, 
is  a  vital  question. 

It  is  not  so  much  what  students  take  from  school,  but 
what  they  put  into  it,  that  determines  their  development. 
This  fact  has  been  too  often  overlooked.  The  nimiber  of 
students  expelled  or  otherwise  pimished  is  an  evidence  of 
one  kind  of  development  taking  place,  and  the  cooperation 
of  students  and  teacher  in  the  building  of  a  fine  community 
center  is  an  evidence  of  quite  another  kind  of  development. 

What  cooperation  do  students  bring  to  the  school? 
How  often  do  they  suggest  ways  and  means  for  improving 
it,  or  do  they  more  readily  plan  to  obstruct  its  work? 
What  part  do  they  have  in  planning  and  conducting  a 
recitation,  or  are  they  expected  to  reproduce  only  what 
the  teacher  has  assigned  them  to  memorize?  What 
concrete  material  is  brought  from  the  home  or  the  com- 
mimity  to  be  used  in  the  classroom,  or  does  the  teacher 
see  no  value  in  those  things?  How  often  are  papers, 
magazines,  books,  pictures,  and  other  material  volun- 
tarily brought  to  the  school,  or  does  the  teacher  use  only 
the  subject  of  the  textbook?  Are  pupils  taught  to  correct 
their  own  mistakes  in  spelHng,  arithmetic,  composition, 
etc.,  or  does  the  teacher  correct  all  mistakes  for  the 
pupils?  Are  the  pupils  helpful  in  keeping  the  room,  the 
building,  and  the  grovmds  healthful  and  attractive,  or  do 


COOPERATION   IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT       97 

they  bid  defiance  to  the  authority  of  the  school  and  seek 
to  bring  contempt  upon  it  by  committing  deeds  of  violence 
that  bring  shame  to  the  school  and  the  commimity? 

Autocratic  management  always  divides  pupils  into  two 
distinct  classes:  the  governors  and  the  governed.  But 
wherever  the  spirit  of  democracy  is  at  work,  the  tendency 
is  to  bring  about  cooperation  between  the  two  and  in 
reality  to  make  them  one. 

The  following  illustrations  of  the  spirit  of  democracy 
at  work  in  this  first  stage  are  given : 

1.  Classroom  cooperation.  Student  government  is 
begun  when  pupils  and  teachers  cooperate  in  the  class- 
room in  keeping  the  room  neat  and  clean,  in  preserving 
order,  and  in  conducting  the  recitation. 

The  election  of  class  officers  to  report  absences  and  tardiness,  to 
take  charge  of  the  classes  when  the  teachers  are  summoned  from 
the  room,  to  conduct  the  classes  through  the  corridors,  and  at  the 
dismissal  to  marshal  the  lines  out  of  the  building;  and  the  use  of 
monitors  to  take  charge  of  yards  and  corridors,  to  look  after  the 
condition  of  the  building,  and  to  take  care  of  the  pupils'  wraps  and 
hats,  are  two  suggestions  as  to  what  can  be  done  in  this  direction. 
If  these  school  and  class  officers  be  elected  by  the  pupils,  the  effect 
upon  both  the  school  and  the  officers  thus  chosen  is  often  better 
than  when  some  one  in  authority  appoints  the  pupils  to  perform 
these  functions.  The  idea  of  choosing  those  whom  they  know  to 
be  most  worthy  and  most  capable,  and  then  of  rendering  prompt 
obedience  to  the  officers  of  their  own  choosing,  can  be  instilled 
through  conferences  with  the  pupils  or  in  talks  by  teacher  or  prin- 
cipal when  the  proper  occasion  offers.' 

2 .  In  the  conduct  of  the  recitation.  The  writer  witnessed 
a  history  lesson  conducted  by  a  fifth  grade  in  one  of  the 
New  York  City  schools.  The  teacher  seemed  to  be  only 
a  spectator  in  the  room.  That  was  one  sign  of  her  great- 
ness as  a  teacher. 

*  Lida  B.  Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching. 


98        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

At  the  appointed  time  a  leader  from  among  the  pupils 
arose  and,  with  an  outline  of  the  lesson  in  hand,  stated 
the  subject  of  the  lesson  and  the  points  for  discussion. 
One  student  after  another  was  called  up,  opinion  after 
opinion  was  volunteered  by  the  pupils.  The  teacher  was 
appealed  to  for  a  decision  or  a  verification — another  evi- 
dence of  the  confidence  of  the  class  in  her.  The  period 
was  filled  with  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  subject. 
Order,  dignity,  and  self-control  were  manifest  every- 
where. The  real  spirit  of  democracy  was  at  work.  The 
teacher's  fine  leadership,  though  hidden,  made  itself  felt. 

One  of  the  public  schools  of  Indianapolis  has  this  same 
spirit.  "In  almost  all  the  grades  in  the  school  the  pupils 
were  conducting  the  recitations  themselves  wherever  there 
was  an  opportunity."  Moreover,  the  schools  of  Chicago 
seek  "to  introduce  into  the  curricultmi  material  which  the 
children  themselves  can  handle  and  from  which  they  may 
get  their  own  lessons."^ 

Dewey's  Schools  of  Tomorrow  contains  a  number  of 
examples  of  the  spirit  of  democracy  at  work  in  the  school. 
The  Fairhope  experiment  in  Alabama  has  won  consid- 
erable recognition  because  of  the  freedom  of  the  pupils 
in  selecting  their  studies  and  in  conducting  the  recita- 
tions. The  elementary  schools  of  the  University  of  Mis- 
sotiri  also  are  widely  known  for  the  same  reasons. 

Madame  Montessori  and  other  great  teachers  whose 
experiments  have  attracted  much  attention  in  America 
base  their  work  on  the  principle  "that  liberty  is  necessary 
in  the  classroom  if  the  teacher  is  to  know  the  needs  and 
capabilities  of  each  pupil,  if  the  child  is  to  receive  in  school 
a  well-rounded  training  making  for  the  best  development 
of  his  mind,  character,  and  physique." ^ 

*  Dewey,  Schools  of  Tomorrow.         ^Ibid. 


COOPERATION  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT       99 

3.  In  the  capacity  for  friendship.  The  first  essential  of 
good  leadership  is  capacity  for  friendship.  "I  merely 
point  out  that  to  you  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  certain 
persons  do  exist  with  an  enormous  capacity  for  friendship 
and  for  taking  delight  in  other  people's  lives;  and  that 
such  persons  know  more  of  truth  than  if  their  hearts  were 
not  so  big."^ 

It  is  doubtful  whether  a  teacher  can  be  a  great  leader 
without  this  capacity.  The  following  story  illustrates 
the  point : 

Two  famous  teachers  of  America  were  introduced  at 
an  educational  convention  a  number  of  years  ago.  They 
were  referred  to  as  Bill,  the  pupil,  and  Henry,  "a  mere 
stripling"  of  a  teacher  of  a  rural  school  in  Missouri. 
In  the  speech  of  introduction  this  incident  was  related : 

Bill  was  the  leader  of  a  gang  of  boys  that  had  turned 
the  previous  teachers  out.  When  the  "mere  stripling" 
entered  the  neighborhood  a  week  before  school  was  to 
start,  he  learned  this  and  other  facts  of  importance.  His 
first  act,  therefore,  was  to  know  the  leaders  and  to  become 
acquainted  with  Bill.  He  went  hunting  with  him,  rode 
in  the  same  wagon  with  him,  and  before  the  end  of  the 
week  they  had  become  fast  friends. 

Monday  morning  came.  The  boys  assembled  early, 
and  the  "mere  stripling"  of  a  teacher  heard  Bill  issuing 
orders  to  the  gang:  "Nobody 's  going  to  interfere  with  the 
new  teacher.  I  've  got  acquainted  with  him  and  he 's  the 
right  kind.  He's  square;  he'll  be  fair.  I'm  his  friend, 
and  anybody  that  puts  up  trouble  for  him  has  got  me 
to  lick.     See?" 

Bill  was  introduced  as  "the  Honorable  William  T. 
Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,"  and 

1  William  James,  What  Makes  a  Life  Significant. 


loo  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Henry,  the  stripling  teacher,  as  "the  Honorable  Henry 
Sabin,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  lowa."^ 

4.  In  the  use  of  devices  in  the  schoolroom.  Educational 
journals  have  as  a  rule  one  or  more  columns  devoted  to 
methods  and  devices  in  the  schoolroom,  such  as  the  use  of 
the  sand  tray,  a  grocery  store  in  the  teaching  of  arithme- 
tic, taking  field  trips  in  the  study  of  geography  and  his- 
tory, making  up  problems  in  arithmetic,  spelling-games, 
dramatizing  the  reading  lesson,  how  to  use  the  ciurent 
periodicals,  and  material  drawn  from  the  community. 

The  ptupose  is  to  arouse  interest  by  supplying  a  new 
motive.  But  what  is  the  principle  underlying  motive 
and  interest  ?  It  is  relief  from  the  old  mechanical  routine 
and  autocratic  methods  and  the  infusion  of  some  of  the 
modem  spirit  of  democracy  into  the  conduct  of  the  reci- 
tation and  into  the  management  of  students. 

The  device  is  a  temporary  thing  and  will  lose  interest 
after  a  while.  Therefore  it  in  itself  has  little  permanent 
value.  But  the  principle  still  stands.  A  new  way  of 
approaching  the  problem  must  be  foimd.  New  sources 
of  energy  must  be  tapped.  The  ingenuity  of  the  teacher 
in  varying  the  classroom  work  so  as  to  appeal  to  as  wide 
a  range  of  interests  as  possible  is  sure  to  set  free  just  so 
much  energy  that  may  be  used  in  the  child's  development 
and  in  making  the  school  serve  the  community. 

5.  In  providing  for  the  progress  or  promotion  of  pupils. 
Another  evidence  of  the  spirit  of  democracy  in  the  man- 
agement of  pupils  may  be  found  in  the  provisions  for  the 
progress  or  promotion  of  the  individual  students.  A  good 
school  will  not  classify  a  twelve-  or  fifteen-year-old  pupil 
with  the  first-  or  second-grade  students  even  if  he  or  she 
cannot  read  and  write.     Some  schools  have  an  ungraded 

1  George  Herbert  Betts  and  Otis  E.  Hall,  Better  Rural  Schools. 


COOPERATION   IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT      loi 

room  for  such  pupils  and  for  other  misfits.  When  this 
is  not  the  case,  such  a  pupil  is  assigned  to  a  teacher  who 
has  pupils  nearer  his  age  and  he  is  assigned  to  special  work. 

So  much  has  been  written  on  the  question  of  student 
progress  or  promotion  that  little  needs  to  be  said  here. 
But  any  teacher  who  holds  all  degrees  of  intellects  to  the 
same  pace,  although  they  may  be  grouped  together  in  the 
same  grade,  is  an  enemy  to  childhood.  Moreover,  the 
teacher  who  holds  a  pupil  back  in  one  or  two  subjects 
because  such  a  student  failed  in  the  remaining  subjects 
of  the  grade  is  also  an  enemy  to  childhood.  Any  act  of 
the  teacher  or  of  the  administration  that  checks  the 
spontaneity  of  the  child  or  diverts  it  into  improper 
channels  is  fundamentally  harmful  because  it  does  violence 
to  the  laws  of  growth  and  development.  The  school 
cannot  become  what  it  should  be  until  the  promotion  or 
progress  of  individuals  is  so  arranged  that  the  greatest 
energy  of  the  pupils  is  released. 

Ex-President  Charles  W.  Eliot  has  well  said : 

The  schools  will  never  do  this  work  which  democracy  needs  from 
them  tmtil  the  backward  and  defective  pupils  are  segregated,  the 
mass  of  the  pupils  enabled  to  pass  rapidly  from  section  to  section 
or  class  to  class  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  the  superior  pupils 
put  into  a  division  by  themselves,  in  order  that  they  may  make 
rapid  progress  in  proportion  to  their  abilities The  Ameri- 
can School  will  never  serve  its  true  democratic  purpose  vmtil  it 
gets  rid  of  marking  time  by  the  superior  pupils  in  order  to  keep  them 
in  close  association  with  inferior  pupils. 

The  second  phase  of  self-government.  The  second 
phase  of  self-government  includes  the  cooperation  of 
teacher  and  pupils  outside  the  classroom  in  such  a  way 
as  to  promote  the  physical,  social,  intellectual,  and  indus- 
trial development  of  the  youth  or  members  of  the  com- 
munity.   This  is  attained  through  clubs  or  societies  or 

LieRARY 

STAT?r  TEAC!:ER'S  C   L"  ^OS 


102  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

other  organizations  in  which  pupils  and  teachers  are 
working  toward  a  common  end. 

It  is  not  alone  in  the  classrooms  that  children  are  being 
educated.  And  teachers  in  the  past  have  taken  too  little 
part  in  the  outside  activities  of  the  pupils.  In  fact,  the 
tendency  has  rather  been  in  many  instances  to  discourage 
student  organizations  or  to  tolerate  them  as  a  necessary 
evil.  In  some  institutions  even  athletics  is  either  ignored 
by  the  school  authorities  or  handled  entirely  by  the 
faculty,  or  so  dominated  by  it  that  nothing  is  left  for 
students  to  do  save  recite  from  books  and  go  home  at  the 
end  of  the  session. 

The  following  examples  of  the  spirit  of  democracy  at 
work  in  this  stage  have  been  observed : 

1.  Self-governing  bodies.  Self-government,  as  has  been 
said,  is  the  greatest  lesson  that  a  student  can  learn,  and 
this  cannot  be  learned  well  and  practiced  wisely  unless 
students  are  given  practice  in  a  wholesome  kind  of  self- 
government.  They  should  have  first-hand  knowledge  of 
the  work  of  governing  bodies  and  the  responsibility  of  the 
individual  to  the  government. 

The  first  athletic  club,  for  example,  will  be  little  more 
than  a  mob  of  discordant  voices  at  first.  But  when  it  is 
organized  along  parliamentary  lines,  order  begins  to 
appear  and  students  at  the  same  time  are  taking  their 
first  lesson  in  democratic  government.  When  students 
learn  how  to  conduct  an  orderly  club  they  are  reaching  a 
point  at  which  they  can  enter  more  fully  into  a  large  part 
of  the  government  of  the  school.  Athletic  clubs,  literary 
societies,  glee  clubs,  school-betterment  clubs,  all  afford 
opportunities  for  cooperation  and  self-government. 

2.  Five  forms  of  student  activities  in  the  Lincoln  School. 
One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  student  activities  is  given 


COOPERATION  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT      103 

by  Otis  W.  Caldwell^  in  a  discussion  of  the  plan  of  the 
Lincoln  School  for  instructing  pupils  in  habits  of  self- 
government. 

First,  there  is  a  school  assembly  at  which  frequent 
lectures  are  given  by  adults  on  matters  of  current  note. 
Pupils  present  matters  of  popular  interest  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, and  freedom  of  discussion  is  allowed.  This  is  consid- 
ered one  of  the  most  important  activities  of  the  school. 

Secondly,  a  student  council  is  formed,  consisting  of 
high-school  and  upper  grammar-grade  pupils  and  teachers. 
Any  matter  pertaining  to  the  school  may  be  presented 
to  the  council  upon  the  initiative  of  any  person  or  class. 
The  council  considers  the  question  and,  if  it  deems  it  wise, 
presents  it  to  the  entire  school  for  consideration. 

Thirdly,  the  town  meeting,  modeled  somewhat  after  the 
New  England  town  meeting,  is  called  from  time  to  time. 
Then  the  entire  school  meets  to  discuss  school  policies, 
and  the  discussion  is  entirely  free. 

Fourthly,  a  school  bank  is  organized  under  the  direction 
of  the  department  of  mathematics.  Thrift  stamps,  war 
saving  stamps,  and  liberty  bonds  are  bought.  Deposits 
are  made  and  students  are  given  practical  lessons  in 
economy  and  business  methods  of  savings  banks. 

Fifthly,  another  very  important  organization  in  which 
the  students  take  part  is  the  Employment  Committee, 
which  aids  pupils  in  finding  ways  of  earning  small  sirnis 
to  help  meet  their  expenses. 

In  addition  to  giving  pupils  a  part  in  the  larger  life  of 
the  school,  the  purpose  is  to  work  over  accepted  subjects, 
such  as  history,  English,  mathematics,  science,  and  civics, 
and  to  introduce  any  new  subject  which  may  give  worthy 
results  in  the  development  of  citizenship. 

^Education,  May,  191 8. 


104  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

3.  Widening  the  scope  of  sttident  activities.  It  should 
be  the  purpose  of  a  commvmity  school  to  widen  student 
activities  just  as  far  as  possible.  The  tendency  has  too 
often  been  to  narrow  the  scope  just  as  far  as  the  admin- 
istration dared  without  producing  a  revolution.  As  a 
result,  pupils  free  from  the  tyranny  of  the  classroom 
organize  athletics  and  fraternities  outside  the  schools. 
The  instinct  for  organization  and  cooperation  is  too  strong 
even  for  teachers  and  parents  to  overcome  it.  As  a 
result,  where  students  are  left  to  do  as  their  impulses 
direct,  it  is  not  unnatural  that  their  want  of  a  standard 
and  their  lack  of  training  in  group  work  leave  the  way  open 
to  dishonest  methods  and  the  ward  type  of  politicians 
in  a  struggle  for  leadership  and  victory.  Moreover, 
cliques  and  clans  make  a  sham  of  democracy  in  school. 
The  spirit  of  insubordination  appears,  the  school  is  torn 
with  dissensions,  parents  lose  confidence,  and  a  revolution 
is  brewing. 

The  student  council,  referred  to  above,  is  tried  in  a 
nimiber  of  institutions.  It  makes  little  difference  by 
what  name  it  is  called,  just  so  the  students  are  given  an 
opportunity  to  express  themselves  and  to  feel  that  they 
are  factors  in  making  the  organization. 

They  should  meet  often  in  a  formal  assembly  of  some 
kind.  It  may  be  in  an  athletic  club,  a  literary  club,  a 
farm-life  club,  a  street  improvement  club,  etc.  The 
impulse  of  the  pupils  and  the  needs  of  the  community  may 
determine  the  nature  of  the  organization. 

They  should  study  parliamentary  law  by  practicing  it, 
and  their  views  and  votes  should  count  for  as  much  as 
the  teacher's.  Such  exercises  teach  self-control,  dignity, 
justice,  and  straightforwardness  of  speech,  and  help  to 
banish  bashfulness,  diffidence,  and  self-consciousness. 


COOPERATION  IN  STUDENT  MANAGEMENT      105 

The  bad  boy,  the  bully  of  the  school,  may  in  this  manner 
be  transformed  into  a  good,  law-enforcing  citizen.  His 
vast  energies  may  be  turned  to  good  account.  When 
teacher  and  pupils  are  divided  into  two  hostile  camps,  no 
wonder  students  consider  it  an  act  of  disloyalty  to  the 
gang  for  one  of  their  members  to  inform  against  them. 

The  third  phase  of  self-government.  A  few  teachers 
have  been  able  to  work  out  a  form  of  government  in 
which  the  administration  of  pupils  is  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  pupils  themselves.  There  have  been  many  fail- 
ures at  this  point  because  pupils  have  not  been  prepared 
for  self-government  and  because  teachers  as  a  rule  are 
not  qualified  to  direct  it.  Wherever  student  self-govern- 
ment is  mentioned,  teachers,  as  a  rule,  think  of  this 
phase  of  it,  and  the  ambitious  ones  or  the  faddists  make 
a  display  of  their  attempts  to  turn  over  to  the  students 
the  entire  government  of  the  school.  But  whenever 
such  experiments  have  been  successful,  the  leadership 
and  authority  of  the  teachers  have  .only  been  concealed, 
not  withdrawn. 

1.  The  George  Junior  Republic.  One  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  this  form  of  student  self-government  is 
the  George  Junior  Republic.  The  current  magazines 
have  from  time  to  time  described  this  imique  institution, 
and  teachers  wotdd  do  well  to  make  a  study  of  it.  This 
is  a  colony  of  boys  organized  into  a  republic  in  which  the 
executive,  the  legislative,  and  the  judicial  departments 
are  apparently  in  the  hands  of  the  boys.  One  proof  of 
its  genuineness  is  the  fact  that  it  has  been  conducted 
successfully  for  a  ntmiber  of  years. 

2.  Dangers  to  be  avoided.  There  is  one  warning  to 
be  given,  however.  A  large  group  of  pupils  that  have 
not  been  in  the  habit  of  participating  in  any  form  of 

8 


io6  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

government  cannot  suddenly  be  turned  into  seli-govem- 
ing  bodies.  Teachers  have  failed  just  at  this  point.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  federal  government 
imdertook  to  convert  the  newly  liberated  slaves  of  the 
South  into  governing  assemblies,  and  the  result  was  a 
tragic  failure.  The  negroes  were  not  prepared  for  self- 
government. 

Teachers  and  superintendents  who  have  been  success- 
ful urge  strongly  that  at  first  only  small  portions  of  the 
student  body  be  organized.  Self-government  is  a  slow 
growth.  The  upper  classes  should  be  organized  first. 
They  may  make  their  beginning  in  self-government  by 
forming  clubs  for  collecting  objects  of  natural  history 
or  materials  for  studying  a  special  subject.  Literary 
societies,  debating  or  declamation  clubs,  musical  clubs, 
athletic  clubs,  thrift-stamp  clubs,  school-garden  clubs, 
com  clubs,  tomato  clubs,  class  organizations,  school 
council,  school  assembly,  or  clubs  by  other  names  with 
special  purposes  may  be  organized. 

Advancing  step  by  step,  the  school  may  reach  the  point 
at  which  teacher  and  pupils  are  a  working  unit,  and  the 
question  of  discipline  will  be  solved.  This  is  the  first 
step  in  teaching  American  citizenship  in  the  school. 

Every  teacher  should  come  to  hold  this  view  of  the 
matter.  It  requires  more  skill,  more  sympathy  and 
patience,  and  more  character  to  be  a  great  leader  in  a 
democracy  than  in  an  autocracy.  Anybody  can  com- 
mand. It  requires  none  of  the  virtues  to  issue  edicts. 
But  it  requires  all  of  them  to  win  the  friendship  of  the 
group  and  to  enlist  the  energies  of  all  in  one  partnership 
and  make  of  them  a  working  tmit  for  the  benefit  of  all. 

The  partners  of  a  school.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
administration  of  business  there  are  three  parties  vitally 


COOPERATION   IN  STUDENT   MANAGEMENT       107 

concerned:  (i)  the  public,  (2)  the  managers  and  stock- 
holders, and  (3)  the  laborers,  and  the  interest  of  all 
three  must  be  protected  if  harmony  is  to  prevail  in  the 
industrial  world. 

The  partners  of  a  free  public  school  are  four:  (i)  the 
public,  (2)  the  boards  of  control,  (3)  the  supervisors  and 
teachers,  and  (4)  the  children.  We  have  discussed  the 
spirit  of  cooperation  at  work  in  the  administration  and 
in  the  work  of  teachers  and  pupils.  In  the  following 
chapters,  therefore,  the  cooperation  of  the  pubhc  will 
be  treated. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
COMMUNITY  LEADERSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY 
The  Leader  in  the  Community 

During  the  past  few  years  we  have  heard  much  of  what  is  called 
the  "social  center,"  or  the  "community  center,"  in  rural  districts. 
This  idea  has  grown  with  the  spread  of  the  consolidation  of  schools, 
and  means,  as  the  name  implies,  a  unifying,  coordinating,  organ- 
izing agency  of  some  kind  in  the  midst  of  the  community,  to  bring 
about  a  harmony  and  solidity  of  all  the  interests  there  represented. 
It  implies  of  course  a  leader;  for  what  is  left  to  be  done  by  people 
in  general  is  likely  to  be  done  poorly 

There  is  no  more  appropriate  person  to  bring  about  this  organi- 
zation, this  unification,  this  increased  solidarity,  than  the  public 
school  teacher  of  the  community;  but  it  will  require  the  head  and 
the  hand  of  a  real  master  to  lead  a  community — to  organize  it,  to 
unite  it,  and  to  keep  it  united.  It.  requires  a  person  of  rare  strength 
and  tact,  a  person  who  has  a  clear  head  and  a  large  heart,  and  who 
is  "up  and  doing"  all  the  time.  A  good  second  to  such  a  person 
would  be  the  minister  of  the  neighborhood,  provided  he  has  breadth 
of  view  and  a  kindly  and  tolerant  spirit.  Much  of  the  success  of 
rural  life  in  foreign  countries,  notably  in  Denmark,  is  due  to  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  schoolmaster  and  the  minister  of  the  com- 
mimity  church. 

— Joseph  Kennedy,  Rural  Life  and  the  Rural  School 

The  school  that  built  a  town.  Mr.  Walter  H.  Page, 
late  American  ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  published 
sixteen  years  ago  a  little  volume  of  essays  entitled.  The 
Rebuilding  of  Old  Commonwealihs.  One  of  the  essays 
is  "The  School  That  Built  a  Town."  This  village  or 
town  at  first  carried  the  school  as  a  sort  of  necessary 
biu"den.  It  was  a  nondescript,  lifeless  institution  exist- 
ing merely  because  it  was  a  habit  of  the  people  to  support 
a  public  school.  It  was  a  fixture  in  the  calender  very 
much  the  same  as  hot  weather,  Christmas,  the  moon's 
phases,  equinoxes,  etc.    However,  it  had  little  influence 

io8 


LEADERSHIP  IN  A   DEMOCRACY  109 

on  the  people  individually  or  collectively  except  to  serve 
as  a  salve  to  their  consciences  when  the  glories  of  our 
public-school  system  were  praised  at  Fourth  of  July 
celebrations,  or  when  the  ministers  spoke  of  their  duties 
to  the  poor.  The  people  were  stratified  into  castes. 
Cooperation  was  unthinkable,  and  each  special  class 
desired  its  special  school. 

One  day,  however,  the  town  accidentally  secured  the 
services  of  a  real  teacher — an  uncommonly  energetic 
man  "who  knew  how  to  manage  men."  He  studied  the 
population  and  convinced  the  people  that  they  had  not 
been  in  earnest  about  education.  "They  are  simply 
playing  with  it  and  are  fooling  themselves,"  he  said, 
and  began  immediately  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  real 
school.  His  first  point  of  attack  was  the  community — to 
convince  the  citizens,  to  organize  them,  and  to  lead  them. 

The  need  of  democratic  leadership.  Teachers  would 
do  well  to  read  this  essay.  It  has  one  great  lesson; 
namely,  the  teacher  or  principal  who  cannot  lead  the 
people  of  a  community,  who  does  not  possess  the  demo- 
cratic spirit  sufficiently  to  arouse  the  desire  for  a  better 
community,  who  cannot  draw  the  citizens  to  the  support 
of  the  school,  will  soon  be  lost  in  the  system,  and  the 
community  will  be  left  to  break  up  at  will  into  social 
castes  or  sectarian  circles. 

Every  community  needs  an  educational  leader,  not  a 
dictator.  It  needs  a  manager  of  men  and  women,  and 
as  large  businesses  are  trying  to  solve  the  same  problem 
through  employment  managers,  so  boards  of  education 
should  seek  to  find  superintendents  who  possess  similar 
qualifications. 

If  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  the  Congress 
had  attempted  to  put  an  army  into  Europe  without  first 


no  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

organizing  the  whole  nation  around  it,  they  would  have 
failed  utterly.  The  best  leaders  of  the  country  were 
called  upon  in  the  organizing  of  the  nation,  and  teachers 
should  never  forget  this  lesson.  Many  schools  have 
failed  because  principals  and  teachers  did  not  possess 
the  first  elements  of  community  leadership. 

One  evidence  of  poor  leadership.  The  first  evidence, 
perhaps,  of  a  lack  of  good  leadership  is  the  unwillingness 
of  the  people  to  be  led  or  directed  by  the  educational 
administrators.  If  the  people  as  a  whole  do  not  always 
know  what  is  best  for  society,  they  do  know  when  they 
do  not  desire  to  be  led  by  certain  leaders,  and  this  is  true 
whether  the  leader  is  elected  by  them  or  appointed  by 
some  centralized  body.  An  officer  elected  by  popular 
vote  may  become  a  miniature  Kaiser,  and  one  appointed 
by  a  board  may  become  a  wise  leader  of  the  people. 
Democratic  leadership  is  not  always  determined  by  the 
mode  of  selection,  but  as  a  rule  the  real  democratic  spirit 
is  increased  or  diminished  just  as  the  leader  is  responsible 
to  the  people  directly  or  through  a  board  held  responsible 
for  his  success. 

Every  year  we  may  read  of  revolutions  in  educational 
circles.  They  are  found  in  the  administration  of  both 
city  schools  and  rural  schools.  Where  the  people  of  a 
community  are  in  revolt  against  the  superintendent  or 
school  board,  the  bill  of  indictment  usually  shows  that 
the  administration  has  been  too  autocratic  and  has  not 
considered  the  wishes  of  the  people.  Legislative  bodies 
are  appealed  to  to  change  the  methods  of  selecting  the 
administrators.  If  they  are  elected  by  the  people,  a 
change  is  desired;  if  they  are  appointed  by  some  central 
authority,  that  is  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
The  people  do  not  know  which  is  the  best  method.    But 


LEADERSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  iii 

they  do  know  that  a  particular  administration  is  bad. 
"It  is  rotten,"  they  say,  and  they  desire  a  change. 

Teachers  must  know  people.  The  success  of  a  school 
depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  administration  to  bring 
into  play  as  much  of  the  energies  of  the  community  as 
possible  and  to  draw  to  the  school  the  support  and 
cooperation  of  as  many  patrons  as  possible.  Wherever 
such  administration  is  found,  there  is  educational  prog- 
ress; and  wherever  it  is  lacking,  there  is  found  discontent, 
the  seeds  of  a  revolution. 

Much  of  the  dissatisfaction  is  due  to  a  lack  of  sufficient 
knowledge  of  what  the  teachers  are  doing  or  trying  to  do. 
Teachers  as  a  general  thing  do  not  visit  or  talk  with 
enough  people.  A  leader  must  take  the  people  into  his 
confidence  and  let  them  day  by  day  follow  his  plans, 
step  by  step.  He  should  make  known  his  motives,  his 
hopes,  and  his  ideals.  A  poor  teacher  of  children  who 
is  thoughtful  enough  to  let  the  people  know  what  he  or 
she  is  tr3n[ng  to  do  may  be  a  great  success  in  a  commimity 
for  a  while,  and  the  best  teacher  possible  may  fail  to 
build  up  a  school  because  he  follows  only  the  path  from 
his  home  to  the  school. 

We  have  had  a  great  deal  to  say  recently  about  the 
need  for  children  to  study  commimity  civics,  but  too 
little  about  the  need  for  teachers  and  superintendents 
to  study  the  community  in  order  to  become  better  citizens, 
to  say  nothing  of  better  leaders  and  directors  of  com- 
mimity activities.  Our  normal  schools  and  colleges  have 
neglected  this  subject,  and  as  a  result  the  teachers  have 
not  measured  up  to  their  responsibilities. 

A  question  such  as  the  following  might  be  asked  by 
the  teacher:  "If  every  other  citizen  in  the  community  had 
the  same  attitude  toward  the  community  that  I  have, 


112  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

what  kind  of  a  community  shotild  we  have?"  or  "What 
does  my  commimity  need  that  it  does  not  have?" 

The  school  and  community  politics.  It  has  become  a 
habit  to  deplore  any  mention  of  politics  in  connection 
with  the  school.  "Keep  politics  out  of  the  school!" 
As  though  the  greatest  evil  in  our  educational  jungle 
were  that  monster,  politics !  Now  the  suspicion  is  grow- 
ing that  wherever  wholesome  politics  is  banished  from 
the  school,  autocratic  control  of  education  is  in  the  ascend- 
ency and  the  individuals  of  the  community  are  ceasing 
to  be  acting  members  in  the  government.  We  need  to 
have  as  many  people  as  possible  in  a  commimity  taking 
an  interest  in  the  school  in  order  that  the  poUtical  atmos- 
phere may  be  as  wholesome  as  possible.  Wherever  bad 
men  rule,  it  is  because  bad  men  are  more  active  than  good 
men  and  not  because  there  is  more  evil  than  good  in  the 
world. 

Therefore  the  one  great  subject  for  teachers  as  well  as 
superintendents  to  study  is  the  community — the  whole 
community  at  work,  at  play,  at  its  devotions;  what  are 
the  forces  for  good  and  evil,  what  are  the  sovirces  of  joy 
of  the  yoimg  and  the  old;  and  how  the  best  agencies  of 
a  community  can  be  organized,  directed,  and  used  in 
the  building  of  a  commimity  school.  Politics  of  the 
right  sort  should  be  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  school.  It 
is  the  only  way  to  coimterbalance  the  evil  in  politics. 
We  shall  always  have  in  a  democracy  some  kind  of 
poKtics  in  every  social  organization,  and  the  question  for 
the  teachers  to  answer  is,  What  sort?  Nor  can  this 
question  ever  be  answered  without  a  knowledge  of  the 
community. 

Influence  of  educators  in  legislative  bodies.  We  are 
prone  to  bewail  the  fact  that  the  opinion  of  educators 


LEADERSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  113 

has  little  weight  in  our  legislative  assemblies.  This  has 
been  too  true  in  the  past.  But  this  is  due  rather  to  the 
fact  that  teachers  and  school  administrators  as  a  rule 
have  known  so  little  of  the  temper  of  the  people  that 
the  lawmakers,  who  are  experienced  poUticians,  are 
afraid  to  follow  them.  "The  people  won't  stand  for  it," 
they  say,  and  the  educators  are  unable  to  answer  them, 
for  they  do  not  know  what  the  people  will  stand  for. 

The  states  have  no  more  important  enterprises  than 
their  educational  undertakings,  and  the  voice  of  the  edu- 
cators should  be  a  factor  in  our  legislative  assemblies,  not 
only  for  improving  educational  facilities,  but  for  improv- 
ing civic  righteousness.  The  two  are  closely  related,  and 
the  one  trouble  in  the  past  has  been  that  both  educa- 
tion and  civic  righteousness  have  been  approached  from 
too  narrow  a  viewpoint.  This  accounts  to  some  extent 
for  the  fact  that  the  educator  is  considered  visionary  and 
impractical,  and  the  politician  selfish  and  impatriotic. 

Study  the  leaders  of  the  community.  It  is  absolutely 
essential  for  the  teachers  and  superintendents  to  know 
the  leaders  of  the  community  if  they  would  draw  the 
community  to  the  school.  The  first  group  of  people, 
therefore,  for  the  teachers  to  learn  is  the  members  of 
the  school  boards.  Wherever  a  superintendent  or  group 
of  teachers  is  constantly  abusing  the  board  members 
for  their  lack  of  cooperation  or  for  their  autocratic 
methods,  it  is  usually  due  to  one  of  two  causes:  (i)  bad 
community  politics  or  (2)  poor  management  on  the  part 
of  teachers  and  superintendents.  Either  of  these  a 
strong  teacher  or  superintendent  possessing  a  wholesome 
democratic  spirit  can  in  most  cases  finally  correct. 

The  first  step,  therefore,  is  to  educate  the  school 
boards.    In  some  states  the  school  boards  have  been 


114  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

organized,  and  they  meet  with  the  teachers  in  their 
general  associations.  In  some  counties  the  superin- 
tendents take  committeemen  with  them  as  they  visit 
the  school — carry  them  into  other  districts,  show  them 
the  progress  of  other  communities,  and  the  difference 
between  a  good  school  and  a  poor  school.  In  the  course 
of  a  year  a  large  niunber  of  committeemen  has  visited 
the  schools  of  a  county  or  of  a  city.  Other  successful 
superintendents  take  prominent  citizens  with  them,  men 
who  are  not  connected  officially  with  the  schools,  and  give 
them  an  imderstanding  of  the  needs  and  aims  of  the 
school. 

School  boards  as  a  rule  will  not  counsel  together  until 
they  feel  the  need  of  doing  so,  nor  until  their  duties  have 
been  outlined  and  they  have  been  confronted  time  and 
time  again  with  them.  Frequently,  too,  influential 
citizens  make  it  less  difficult  for  them  to  act.  There- 
fore influential  citizens  of  a  community  should  be  con- 
sulted and  advised  as  to  the  plans  and  purposes  of  the 
school. 

In  several  states  counties  have  local  school  officers' 
meetings,  but  these  will  be  dry  and  formal  and  soon 
cease  unless  the  superintendent  and  teachers  arouse  a 
purpose  in  them.  Wherever  the  superintendent  or  the 
teachers  can  give  the  local  school  officials  some  very 
definite  work  to  do  in  which  the  school  cooperates,  some- 
thing is  gained.  One  great  trouble  is  that  these  local 
officials,  busy  with  their  own  affairs,  do  not  know  what 
their  duties  are,  hence  do  not  realize  their  responsibility. 
Teachers  should  exhibit  some  executive  skill  along  this 
line  and  keep  the  officials  better  informed. 

Moreover,  teachers  should  know  the  political  leaders 
of  the  community,  the  officials  who  have  been  elected 


LEADERSHIP   IN   A  DEMOCRACY  115 

by  the  people  to  public  office.  Such  officials  should  be 
invited  to  the  school  to  discuss  for  the  children  the  duties 
of  their  office  and  the  relation  of  their  office  to  the  school. 
In  a  democracy  the  opinion  of  every  man  has  some 
weight. 

Value  of  a  school  code.  The  school  laws  perhaps  of 
every  state  in  the  Union  give  abtmdant  evidence  of  this 
clash  between  the  administrators  of  the  schools  and  the 
people  of  the  commimity.  In  many  states  the  school 
system,  if  it  can  be  called  a  system,  has  been  built  up 
by  imits.  Special  laws  and  special  charters  have  endowed 
boards  or  superintendents  with  autocratic  power,  or  have 
gone  to  the  extreme  of  popular  control.  These  have 
been  added  to  from  time  to  time  until  it  is  difficult  to 
define  the  meets  and  bounds  of  the  administrative  officers. 
Whenever  a  board  has  wished  to  circumvent  the  will  of 
the  people,  or  whenever  the  people  have  wished  to 
destroy  a  board  or  a  superintendent,  it  has  been  too  easy 
to  secure  a  special  law  or  an  amendment  to  a  charter 
granting  additional  powers;  and  not  always  have  the 
changes  or  additions  been  made  in  the  interest  of  educa- 
tion or  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  cooperation  of 
the  pubUc. 

A  school  code,  therefore,  laying  out  broad  lines,  is 
needed  in  every  state. 

Governor  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  of  Pennsylvania, 
speaking  of  the  school  code  in  his  state,  says: 

Seven  years  ago  we  enacted  here  the  School  Code.  It  has  now 
gone  into  operation  and  has  been  so  generally  understood  that  we 
look  upon  it  as  a  sort  of  ancient  document,  not  in  terms  of  the  life 
of  the  school  but  in  terms  of  the  hfe  of  the  Commonwealth.  The 
school  code  is  still  an  untried  and  an  undeveloped  educational  possi- 
bility, and  I  take  it  that  in  the  next  twenty  years  we  shall  find  in 
that  bond  of  common  school  law  ample  warrant  for  every  form  of 


116  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

development  and  improvement  which  our  school  system  will  need 
in  order  to  keep  it  constantly  serving  the  Commonwealth.  In  the 
last  session  of  the  Legislature  there  were  many  school  bills  intro- 
duced by  members  of  the  Assembly  which  sought  in  one  way  or 
another  to  change  the  fimdamental  provisions  of  the  Act.  Many 
of  these  were  smothered  in  committees,  and  some  of  them  met  with 
executive  veto,  because  they  did  not  hold  within  themselves  any 
warrant  of  constructive  help  or  improvement  in  educational  condi- 
tions, but  were  brought  out  to  serve  some  special  interest  or  to  give 
some  individual  or  community  an  advantage  over  some  other 
individual  or  community,  and  they  were,  therefore,  unrighteous 
and  died  as  they  ought  to  die. 

Teachers  and  superintendents  need  to  study  the  broad 
lines  of  fundamental  law.  Educational  legislation  has 
been  too  much  of  a  patchwork  of  special  permit  and 
special  exception,  until  now  chaos  instead  of  order  reigns 
in  many  centers. 

Steps  to  be  taken  in  educating  the  people.  Teachers 
and  principals  have  looked  upon  professional  study  as  a 
subject  dealing  chiefly  with  the  conduct  of  a  recitation 
and  the  discipline  of  the  pupils.  Such  a  view  is  too 
narrow.  It  does  not  give  the  teacher  a  wide  enough 
range  for  his  activities.  The  teacher,  as  well  as  the 
minister  or  the  lawyer,  must  take  notice  of  a  number 
of  forces  at  work  in  the  community. 

I .  Betterment  of  the  community.  Is  the  teacher  thinking 
in  terms  of  the  betterment  of  the  whole  community? 
What  are  the  organized  recreations  of  the  young  people 
and  what  do  they  need?  Have  the  teachers  studied  the 
needs  of  young  people  at  different  ages?  What  notable 
progress  made  by  other  communities  can  be  adopted  by 
the  teacher? 

What  are  the  general  educational  policies  of  the  state? 
Of  the  nation?  A  community  cannot  raise  itself  by 
its  own  boot  straps.    To  leave  the  formation  of  the 


LEADERSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  117 

educational  ideal  to  the  community  alone  would  foster 
provincialism  and  retard  progress.  The  ideal  must  be 
formed  out  of  the  best  that  exists  in  the  nation,  and  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  educational  leaders  to  draw  the  people 
of  a  community  toward  that  ideal. 

2.  The  community  and  the  school.  Is  the  teacher  plan- 
ning to  draw  all  the  people  of  the  community  around 
the  school?  What  uses  are  made  of  the  local  papers? 
Some  superintendents  edit  a  page  once  a  week,  and  some 
publish  monthly  papers,  in  which  important  school  legis- 
lation is  discussed,  special  needs  are  set  forth,  and  the 
state  and  national  ideal  is  kept  constantly  before  the 
people. 

3.  Supervision  and  expense.  Can  the  principal  or 
superintendent  convince  the  public  that  supervision  is 
paying  and  that  the  expense  is  justified?  In  some  coun- 
ties the  supervisors  are  important  factors  in  the  building 
up  of  the  school  and  the  community,  while  in  others  the 
people  have  declared  war  on  them,  and  they  have  declared 
war  on  the  people — a  strange  and  unpardonable  crime 
against  hiunanity.  In  some  counties  the  special  agents, 
such  as  the  corn-club  and  tomato-club  directors,  carry  on 
their  work  independent  of  the  teachers  and  the  school — 
an  anomalous  condition  for  an  educational  organization. 

Teachers  and  superintendents  are  public  officials,  but 
how  many  can  show  evidence  that  their  profession  "is  the 
noblest  and  the  most  important  of  all,  the  ministry  not 
excepted"?  Of  course,  this  quotation,  now  common- 
place, sounds  well  uttered  with  the  right  accent,  but 
how  often  would  it  be  difficult  to  point  to  a  commimity 
as  a  concrete  illustration  of  this  oratorical  gem? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ORGANIZING  THE  COMMUNITY  FOR 
BETTER  LEADERSHIP 

The  School  a  Useful  Center  for  the  Community  Life 

Merely  to  educate  the  young  ought  to  be  but  a  part  of  the  mission 
of  the  school.  This  is  important,  of  course,  and  it  should  be  done 
much  better  than  it  is  now  done.  The  school,  though,  ought  to 
reach  out  into  the  community  life  and  influence  it  positively  for 
good.  The  great  and  fundamental  interests  of  the  home  and  the 
vocation  should  be  touched  and  quickened  by  it.  A  new  sense  of 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  rural  people  for  agricultural  improve- 
ment and  for  the  conservation  of  the  soil  should  be  awakened.  The 
village,  which  is  the  center  for  an  agricultiiral  community,  also 
should  be  awakened  to  a  sense  of  its  relationship  to  the  problem 
of  rural  welfare.  The  conservation  of  soil  fertility;  the  improve- 
ment of  farming  methods;  the  preservation  of  the  natural  scenery 
of  the  community;  the  dissemination  of  agricultural  and  general 
knowledge;  the  preparation  for  the  intelligent  use  of  leisure  time; 
the  improvement  of  home  life;  the  conservation  of  child-life,  girl- 
hood, and  motherhood;  the  stimulating  of  social  organizations  to 
useful  activity;  and,  in  general,  the  development  of  a  better  rural 
society; — all  of  these  are  as  much  legitimate  functions  of  the  redi- 
rected school  as  is  the  teaching  to  read  and  write  and  cipher.  When 
teachers  and  school  officials  come  to  see  this  is  so,  then  will  the 
school  be  on  the  way  to  becoming  a  useful  center  for  the  community 
life. 

— Ell  WOOD  P.  Cubberley,  Rural  Life  and  Education 

When  the  teacher  may  fail.  The  time  has  gone  for- 
ever when  the  schoolmaster  can  live  in  his  library  and 
the  schoolroom  and  conduct  a  successful  school.  Adam 
Smith  opposed  universal  education  at  the  public  expense 
because  the  teacher,  he  said,  would  cease  to  exert  himself 
in  the  community  since  his  pay  would  no  longer  depend 
upon  his  drawing  power  as  a  teacher.  That  criticism 
of  public  education  holds  somewhat  to-day  so  far  as  the 
teacher  is  concerned. 

Ii8 


ORGANIZING  FOR  BETTER  LEADERSHIP        119 

The  superintendent,  the  principal,  and  the  teacher  who 
confine  their  work  solely  to  the  making  of  courses,  con- 
struction and  care  of  buildings  and  grounds,  and  the 
teaching  of  children  that  attend  school  are  only  half  way 
successful  at  best.  This  applies  especially  to  teachers  in 
city  schools,  who  in  many  cases  do  not  know  the  parents 
or  the  home  life  of  the  children  they  teach.  They  do 
not  know  what  opportunities  and  aids  the  children  may 
have  at  home.  They  do  not  know  how  much  or  how  little 
work  the  children  have  to  do  before  they  come  to  school. 

Such  teachers  have  missed  the  great  purpose  for  which 
the  school  was  established.  They  are  putting  the  empha- 
sis on  so  much  subject  matter  to  be  acquired  by  so  many 
pupils  within  a  given  time,  and  by  the  system  of  average 
the  teacher  knows  that  at  least  80  per  cent  of  the  pupils 
ought  to  pass. 

We  have  too  long  looked  upon  the  school  as  a  place 
where  children  are  taught  only  certain  prescribed  lessons 
derived  from  textbooks.  Reading  and  writing  and  arith- 
metic are  now  and  perhaps  always  will  be  the  very  ABC 
of  democracy.  But  the  purpose  of  a  community  school 
to-day  involves  more  than  these. 

Conditions  necessary  for  the  building  of  a  community 
center.  It  is  a  natural  supposition  that  every  teacher 
who  holds  a  certificate  possesses  enough  scholarship  to 
instruct  the  pupils  after  they  enter  school.  The  great 
question,  therefore,  that  should  be  raised  in  every  teachers' 
meeting,  in  every  association  or  institute,  in  every  stmmier 
school  or  teacher-training  institution,  is  this:  How  can 
the  commvmity  be  so  organized  that  real,  live  community 
centers  can  be  established  at  the  school? 

I.  Study  the  population  of  the  community  and  its  needs. 
The  first  step  is  to  know  the  people.     This  will  take  time, 


xao  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

but  it  is  necessary.  About  one-seventh  of  our  population 
is  foreign  bom,  and  about  one-third  is  either  of  foreign 
birth  or  of  mixed  parentage.  Not  only  should  their  chil- 
dren be  taught,  but  the  parents  themselves  should  be 
taught  to  read  the  English  language  and  to  feel  the  force 
of  American  ideals.  The  foreign  element  cannot  be 
Americanized  solely  by  having  their  children  taught. 
How  many  foreign-bom  patrons  of  the  school  read  only 
papers  published  in  a  foreign  language? 

What  percentage  of  the  people  are  illiterate?  This  is 
one  of  the  first  questions  that  teachers  should  answer. 
What  percentage  of  the  children  belonging  to  school  are 
regular  attendants?  Once  having  this  information,  the 
teachers  may  begin  to  plan  ways  and  means  for  correcting 
the  evil,  by  establishing  schools  for  the  adult  illiterates 
and  by  seeing  that  the  compulsory  school  laws  and  the 
child  labor  laws  are  enforced. 

In  the  rural  communities  how  many  citizens  own  the 
land  they  ciiltivate  or  the  homes  in  which  they  live? 
James  J.  Hill  has  said  that  a  population  without  land  is 
a  mob.  Absentee  landlordism  is  on  the  increase.  In 
some  commimities  not  a  single  man  living  in  the  com- 
munity owns  the  land  he  cultivates,  and  in  some  years 
the  entire  school  population  is  changed.  The  shift- 
less moving  class  of  citizens,  here  this  year,  there  next 
year,  without  community  traditions  or  community  ideals 
that  come  from  a  fixed  residence,  is  a  menace  to  society 
and  is  undoubtedly  undermining  the  spirit  of  democracy 
in  America. 

This  is  a  topic  that  could  very  profitably  be  discussed 
in  all  teachers'  meetings.  With  the  information  in  hand, 
a  solution  of  the  problem  may  be  sought.  How  many 
teachers  and  superintendents  know  the  provisions  of  the 


ORGANIZING  FOR  BETTER  LEADERSHIP        lai 

Federal  Farm  Loan  Bank  Act?  Is  there  a  single  citizen 
in  the  commtinity  who  has  been  benefited  by  this  act? 
If  none  has  been,  then  where  is  there  a  man  who  has  been 
benefited  ?  What  are  other  states  and  other  nations  doing 
to  overcome  the  evil  of  absentee  landlordism?  This  sub- 
ject alone  could  form  the  basis  of  much  of  the  arithmetic, 
geography,  current  literattire,  and  even  of  agriculture  in 
the  school. 

How  many  citizens  of  the  commimity  do  not  even 
patronize  the  school,  do  not  think  enough  of  it  to  let  their 
children  attend,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  send  them  away 
to  some  other  community?  In  every  community  there 
are  always  a  few  children  who  should  not  attend  a  crowded 
public  school.  But  there  are  always  a  few  families  who 
feel  that  their  children  are  too  good  to  mix  with  the  com- 
mon herd.  These  are  almost  as  hurtful  to  a  community 
school  as  the  landless  tenant.  In  fact,  they  soon  move 
away  or  become  converted.  In  the  former  case,  they 
increase  the  number  of  landless  tenants. 

2.  Work  for  a  larger  school  unit.  Teachers  should  study 
the  advantages  of  the  consolidated  districts  and  of  the 
large  school  unit.  When  the  nation  was  founded  and 
public  affairs  were  apportioned  so  as  to  make  every 
citizen  an  acting  member  of  this  government,  the 
"ward,"  as  Jefferson  called  the  small  subdivision  of  the 
covinty,  was  made  large  enough  to  form  a  working  civil 
unit.  But  with  the  establishment  of  public  schools  the 
"ward"  has  been  divided  and  subdivided  until  the  school 
district  in  most  instances  is  too  small  and  contains  too 
few  people  to  arouse  enough  enthusiasm  qx  cooperation 
for  bmlding  a  strong  community.  The  small  school, 
therefore,  instead  of  building  up  a  large  civic  center,  has 
had  just  the  opposite  effect. 

9 


122  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

This  subject  of  consolidation  of  small  districts  has  been 
before  the  teachers  for  several  years,  and  so  much  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  may  be  secured  from  available 
sources  as  to  make  repetition  here  imnecessary.  How- 
ever, there  is  just  one  thought  to  add  to  the  mass  of 
material  published  on  this  subject. 

If  three  or  more  teachers,  for  example,  in  three  or  more 
adjoining  one-teacher  school  districts  were  to  come 
together  and  study  how  to  unite  them  into  one  consoli- 
dated district,  the  one-teacher  school  would  almost  disap- 
pear within  a  few  years  except  in  imusual  centers  where 
geographical  conditions  make  consolidation  impossible. 

One  great  trouble  has  been  that  all  this  work  has  been 
left  to  the  county  superintendent,  who  at  times  has  been 
too  busy  with  office  details,  or  who  has  been  afraid  of 
causing  some  stir  among  his  constituents,  or  who  has  been 
too  autocratic  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  people. 

The  individual  teachers,  as  a  rule,  have  not  looked  upon 
this  matter  as  a  problem  for  them  to  help  to  solve.  They 
have  been  too  isolated.  They  have  known  too  little 
about  the  adjacent  districts.  Rivalries  and  district 
jealousies  have  been  kept  alive  by  contests  that  have 
emphasized  differences  and  local  rivalries. 

The  first  step,  therefore,  is  for  the  teachers  to  unite  in 
some  club  work  for  instructing  the  individuals  of  the  pros- 
pective consolidated  school.  There  should  be  cooperation 
of  students  and  patrons  looking  toward  this  end.  We 
live  in  a  democracy,  not  in  an  autocracy,  and  the  people 
must  be  taught,  not  driven. 

The  work  of  the  consolidation  of  districts  is  going  on 
slowly  here,  rapidly  there,  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 
But  as  yet  teachers  in  their  professional  meetings  have 
as  a  rule  given  it  little  consideration.     They  have  been 


ORGANIZING  FOR   BETTER  LEADERSHIP         123 

too  busy  studying  methods  and  devices  and  courses  of 
study.  They  should  study  consolidation  with  a  view  of 
putting  it  into  practice. 

When  teachers  are  organized,  therefore,  for  professional 
study,  they  might  be  grouped  into  clubs  in  such  a  way  as 
to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  certain  districts  cooperat- 
ing with  a  view  to  consolidating  later.  Moreover,  the 
citizens  of  the  districts  represented  in  these  groups  should 
meet  together.  They  should  unite  in  school  contests, 
in  fairs,  and  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  general  welfare. 
They  should  be  taught  first  to  cooperate.  Then  official 
consolidation  may  be  effected  without  causing  undue 
opposition. 

3.  A  large  unit  for  towns  and  cities.  While  we  have 
been  discussing  consolidation  of  rural  districts,  too  little 
thought  has  been  devoted  to  a  building  program  for  the 
large  towns  and  cities.  Small  buildings  and  small  school 
units  have  been  located  as  a  rule  on  very  small  lots  with- 
out any  regard  for  the  classification  of  pupils,  the  growth  of 
population,  or  the  futiu-e  needs  of  the  community.  As 
a  consequence  when  the  capacity  of  a  building  is  reached, 
some  other  small  lot  is  generally  selected  in  some  other 
section  of  the  town  and  there  another  small  building  is 
erected. 

In  a  large  percentage  of  the  towns  having  fewer  than 
ten  thousand  inhabitants  one  school  site  sufficiently  large 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  commtmity  for  a  generation 
could  be  selected  at  a  reasonable  cost.  Buildings  could 
be  erected  on  the  unit  plan,  and  ground  sufficient  should 
be  reserved  for  all  the  athletic  needs  of  the  pupils.  School 
authorities  surely  are  not  aware  of  the  advantage  to  be 
gained  from  grading  and  classifying  pupils  through  such 
a  grouping  of  buildings  on  one  large  site. 


124  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

In  the  large  towns  and  cities  a  complete  building  pro- 
gram should  be  prepared  —  one  that  will  meet  the  needs 
of  the  future  —  and  all  buildings  should  be  erected  in 
accordance  with  this  program.  There  is  almost  as  much 
to  be  gained  through  the  proper  grouping  of  buildings  in 
the  large  towns  and  cities  as  there  is  to  be  gained  by  the 
consolidation  of  schools  in  rural  districts. 

4.  Provide  permanent  homes  for  teachers.  Teachers  of 
the  rural  districts  and  of  the  towns  and  villages  are  for 
the  most  part  a  moving  population.  Like  the  landless 
tenant,  they  have  no  fixed  abode.  People  as  a  rule  do 
not  like  to  take  boarders.  Even  in  the  one-teacher  school 
district  it  is  frequently  easier  for  a  superintendent  to 
find  a  teacher  than  it  is  to  find  a  smtable  boarding  place 
for  the  teacher,  and  the  trouble  is  proportionately  mul- 
tiplied as  the  ntmiber  of  teachers  in  a  commimity  is 
increased. 

The  teacher  cannot  become  a  real  teacher  and  success- 
fully organize  the  community  around  the  school  imless  he 
or  she  lives  long  enough  in  the  community  to  know  the 
people  and  to  become  well  known.  In  one  district  in 
North  Carolina  where  the  teacher  was  imable  to  find  a 
boarding  place,  the  county  superintendent  advised  her  to 
secure  board  in  a  neighboring  district  near  another  school 
and  agreed  to  transport  the  pupils  to  her.  As  a  result, 
the  next  year  the  school  building  was  moved  and  con- 
solidation was  effected. 

The  old  story  of  the  teachers  "boarding  around"  in 
the  community,  or  living  as  members  of  the  family  and 
being  subjected  to  all  the  inconveniences  of  the  individual 
members  of  a  large  family  in  a  small  house,  is  too  well 
known  to  dwell  upon  here.  But  it  should  be  repeated 
over  and  over  again  that  a  teacher  living  tmder  such 


ORGANIZING  FOR  BETTER  LEADERSHIP        125 

conditions  can  do  little  in  the  way  of  building  up  a  com- 
munity. The  vexations  arising  from  unsatisfactory  living 
conditions  kill  the  teacher's  spirit,  leaving  little  energy 
save  for  the  usual  school  routine.  There  is  only  one 
remedy,  it  seems — a  good  permanent  home. 

Such  conditions  have  led  authorities  in  communities  of 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  every  state  in  the  Union  to  erect 
homes  in  certain  consolidated  districts  where  five  or  more 
teachers  are  employed.  This  is  not  merely  a  rural-school 
problem.  It  is  almost  as  difficult  to  secure  satisfactory 
board  at  a  reasonable  price  in  the  towns  and  cities  as  in 
rural  districts.  The  Bureau  of  Education  says  that  the 
teachers'  cottage  movement  has  developed  rapidly  in  the 
past  few  years,  and  the  General  Education  Board  has 
been  led  to  cooperate  with  a  few  communities  in  different 
states  to  help  solve  this  problem.  The  report  of  one  such 
school  of  Alberta,  Stevens  Coimty,  Minnesota,  will  be  a 
value : 

The  members  of  the  staff  form  a  cooperative  family,  pooling  their 
activities  and  interests,  utilizing  the  manse  as  a  domestic  science 
laboratory  for  the  girls  and  as  a  social  center  for  the  community. 
For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  school,  every  teacher  is  a 
trained  and  experienced  normal-school  graduate.  Thus  it  would 
appear  that  the  teachers'  home  promises  to  realize  the  hopes  of 
those  who  procured  it. 

One  teacher  in  North  Carolina  who  lived  in  the  school 
home  last  year  gives  the  following  interesting  story : 

I  have  lived  in  a  teacherage  one  year,  and  like  it  much  better  than 
boarding.  It  is  a  place  that  one  can  call  home  when  out  of  school, 
and,  too,  it  seems  so  good  to  be  free  after  the  day's  work  is  over. 

The  Teacherage  is  located  in  the  little  town  of  Gumberry,  North- 
ampton County,  North  Carolina.  There  were  five  of  the  teachers 
who  lived  there  together,  two  schools,  Occoneechee  and  Gumberry 
combined,  Gumberry  having  two  teachers,  Occoneechee  having 
three. 


126  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Tliis  teacherage  was  rented  by  the  committees  of  the  two  dis- 
tricts, and  neatly  furnished.  The  teachers  paid  the  rent  for  furni- 
ture once  a  month  which  was  $io. 

We  hired  our  washing  and  ironing,  but  we  did  our  own  cook- 
ing, as  we  could  not  get  a  cook,  and  we  thoroughly  enjoyed  the 
work.  Four  of  the  teachers  did  the  work,  one  boarded  with  the 
other  four.  The  work  was  divided  this  way:  Two  teachers  cooked 
one  week  at  a  time,  while  the  others  did  all  the  cleaning  except  the 
bedrooms.     Each  teacher  looked  after  her  own  room. 

We  ran  an  accotmt  at  the  stores  in  this  little  village,  and  paid 
up  these  bills  once  a  month.  A  great  number  of  things  were  given 
us,  such  as  hams,  canned  fruit,  apples,  vegetables,  milk,  and  butter. 
Of  course  this  cut  down  the  bills  considerably. 

I  hope  it  will  be  so  I  can  live  in  a  teacherage  as  long  as  I  am 
teaching,  for  the  expenses  are  nothing  like  as  great  as  when  boarding, 
and  there's  more  pleasure  for  the  teacher.^ 

S.  Use  the  county  agents.  One  of  the  most  important 
reforms  needed  in  educational  administration  is  the  unifi- 
cation of  the  work  of  the  teachers  and  the  extension  agents 
of  a  city  or  county.  In  most,  if  not  all,  the  states  some 
provisions  have  been  made  for  one  or  all  of  the  following 
agents  or  supervisors:  health,  fire  prevention,  lecturers, 
directors  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  community  recreational 
directors,  and  agriculttiral  agents.  These  educational 
agents  are  appointed  as  a  rule  to  work  through  the  schools, 
but  it  is  more  than  likely  to  be  the  case  that  they  work 
independently  of  schools. 

Take,  for  example,  the  boys'  corn  clubs  and  the  girls' 
canning  clubs.  It  is  impossible  for  one  agent  to  cover  a 
whole  county,  and  yet,  instead  of  working  through  the 
school,  the  agent  in  some  states  draws  the  club  workers 
from  the  county  at  large,  organizes  them  by  districts  or 
townships,  and  incidentally  holds  meetings  in  the  court- 
house, sometimes  in  the  schoolhouse,  on  Saturdays  when 

^  Training  School  Quarterly. 


ORGANIZING  FOR   BETTER   LEADERSHIP        127 

the  teacher  is  out  of  the  way.  Sometimes  the  teacher 
volunteers  to  aid  in  forming  a  club  much  as  she  would 
aid  in  organizing  a  quilting  party  among  the  yoimg  people. 

Every  city  school  and  every  rural  school  should  be 
given  instruction  in  some  of  the  subjects  in  which  the 
county  demonstration  agents  are  directly  concerned. 
Yet  how  many  of  those  agents  are  working  with  the 
teachers  of  the  mral  schools,  to  say  nothing  of  the  city 
schools?  That  is,  do  they  help  to  enrich  the  courses 
of  instruction  by  aiding  the  teacher  in  securing  new 
material? 

Following  are  some  of  the  things  the  county  demon- 
stration agent  should  do.  How  many  of  them  could  the 
teacher  in  the  city  schools  as  well  as  the  rural  schools  use? 

a)  He  encourages  community  cooperation. 

b)  He  promotes  improved  methods  of  crop  production. 

c)  He  introduces  more  and  better  live  stock. 

d)  He  assists  in  the  proper  management  of  farm 
business. 

e)  He  estabUshes  boys'  agricultural  clubs  and  garden 
clubs. 

f)  He  assists  in  marketing  and  distribution. 

g)  He  aids  in  the  control  of  animal  diseases. 

h)  He  works  for  the  eradication  of  plant  diseases. 

i)  He  helps  in  planning  the  construction  of  farm  build- 
ings, poultry  houses,  bams,  silos,  pig  pastures,  etc. 

y)  He  conducts  farmers'  meetings,  including  lectures 
on  how  to  keep  a  good  garden. 

k)  He  assists  in  county  and  community  fairs. 

/)    He  studies  soil  and  plans  for  crop  rotation,  etc. 

Every  school  in  the  county  bears  some  relation  to  a 
part  at  least  of  these  duties  and  could  use  with  advantage 
to  the  community  the  cooperation  of  the  county  agents. 


128       EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

6.  Cooperate  with  the  moral  or  religious  forces.  The 
teacher  should  work  in  harmony  with  the  moral  and 
religious  forces  of  a  community.  Pestalozzi  in  Leonard 
and  Gertrude  shows  how  a  medieval  cleric  was  perhaps 
the  greatest  dead  weight  that  a  community  had  to  carry. 
And  this  is  true  to-day.  In  some  towns  and  villages  the 
denominations  have  been  at  war  so  long  that  they  reach 
a  truce  only  at  this  point — the  superintendent  is  chosen 
from  one  denomination  for  a  term  of  years,  and  then  he 
is  discharged  so  that  another  denomination  may  have 
the  control  of  the  school  for  a  while. 

A  school  that  does  not  seek  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of 
all  the  denominations  and  to  abolish  forever  their  sec- 
tarian warfare  cannot  become  a  community  school. 

In  some  sections  the  imion  Sunday  school  has  been 
established.  In  others  Sunday-school  work  is  encouraged 
to  such  an  extent  that  high-school  credit  is  given  for 
successful  work  accomplished  along  certain  lines.  Many 
states  have  become  interested  in  the  matter  of  giving 
credit  for  Sunday-school  work.  Wilbur  F.  Crafts,  in 
Bible  in  School  Plans  of  Many  Lands,  discusses  the  many 
plans  in  use  among  the  public  schools  for  stimulating  or 
giving  school  credit  for  Bible  study  out  of  school — the 
North  Dakota  plan,  the  Colorado  plan,  the  Gary  plan, 
the  New  York  City  plan,  the  Pennsylvania  plan,  the 
Pittsburgh  plan,  the  Australian  plan,  etc. 

Instead  of  divorcing  the  school  from  religion,  the 
teachers  should  seek  to  utilize  the  religious  forces  of  a 
community,  for  a  school  plan  that  does  not  commend 
itself  to  soimd  religion  is  a  menace  to  the  community  as 
a  whole. 

In  this  connection  the  Y.M.C.A.  and  the  Y.W.C.A.  and 
other  religious  societies  should  be  encouraged. 


ORGANIZING  FOR  BETTER  LEADERSHIP        129 

The  nation  set  the  standard  when  it  established  a  school 
for  the  training  of  reUgious  workers  and  leaders  in  the 
army.  The  school  for  chaplains  in  which  Protestants 
and  Catholics  sat  under  the  same  instruction — sometimes 
a  Protestant  in  charge,  sometimes  a  Catholic — is  one  of 
the  finest  lessons  in  religious  cooperation  that  the  world 
affords. 

7.  Enlist  the  fraternal  organizations.  Every  community 
has  one  or  more  fraternal  organizations  that  could  be  a 
power  in  helping  to  build  a  community  school — the 
junior  order  of  the  United  American  Mechanics,  the 
Rotary  clubs,  the  Masonic  order,  the  Elks,  the  Farmers' 
Union,  and  others.  Moreover,  the  different  organizations 
of  farmers  should  be  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  community. 
Even  a  city  school  could  profit  by  having  representatives 
of  these  orders  appear  from  time  to  time  and  discuss  their 
plans,  their  hopes,  their  ideals — such  as  the  Grange, 
the  Farmers'  Alliance,  the  Farmers'  Union,  and  other 
organizations. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  a  nimiber  of  civic  organi- 
zations already  formed  or  that  might  be  formed.  Remem- 
ber that  liberty  is  the  first  word  in  democracy,  but  that 
cooperation  is  the  last  word.  Special  clubs  may  be  formed 
when  the  people  cannot  be  reached  through  clubs  already 
in  existence,  such  as  parents'  meetings,  yoimg  peoples' 
literary  clubs,  etc. 

8.  The  example  of  the  nation.  The  one  great  purpose 
of  the  school  is  to  make  every  citizen  of  the  community 
an  acting  member  of  the  government  by  becoming  a 
cooperating  member  of  the  community.  The  national 
government  has  set  a  great  example  in  cooperation  for 
the  teacher  to  follow.  How  many  organized  agencies  did 
the  nation  set  to  work  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 


130  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

the  cooperation  of  all  the  people?  How  many  of  these 
agencies  have  definite  organizations  in  the  community 
and  how  many  could  be  organized? 

Each  of  these  has  its  roots  in  the  individual  community. 
They  form  a  sort  of  Jacob's  ladder  along  which  the  spirit 
of  democracy  is  ascending  and  descending.  At  one  end 
is  the  home,  the  school,  the  church,  and  the  club;  at  the 
other  end,  the  appointed  administrators  of  the  whole 
nation. 

If  the  school,  therefore,  becomes  a  real  community 
school,  it  must  epitomize  the  spirit  of  democracy  at  work 
in  the  nation,  and  the  energies  of  the  community  must  be 
organized  and  set  in  motion  to  make  it  such.  Each  of 
the  following  agencies  which  were  at  work  in  the  nation 
to  prepare  this  country  for  war  may  find  its  counterpart 
in  the  community:  the  Cotmcil  of  National  Defense,  the 
Food  Control  Board,  the  organized  experts  of  the  country, 
the  Red  Cross  Council,  the  War  Trade  Board,  the  War 
Labor  Board,  the  Director  of  Transportation,  the  Federa- 
tion of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America,  the  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Information,  the  National  Council 
of  Education,  the  War  Fund  Committee,  the  Y.M.C.A., 
the  Y.W.C.A.,  the  Director  of  Playgrounds,  and  other 
educational  activities  of  the  country. 

Now  that  the  war  is  over,  how  many  of  these  or  similar 
agencies  can  the  school  utilize  in  peace  times  in  order  to 
make  every  citizen  a  cooperating  member  of  the  com- 
munity? The  name  may  be  changed,  and  the  aim  may  be 
different,  but  the  example  of  the  nation  in  organizing  for 
war  still  stands  as  a  guide  to  the  school  in  organizing  the 
commimity. 

The  soul  of  the  community  will  be  found  only  when  all 
its  energies^are  put  into  play. 


ORGANIZING  FOR  BETTER   LEADERSHIP        131 

Community  center  movement.  The  war  has  thrown 
such  a  burden  upon  the  communities  that  the  school 
is  called  upon  to  play  a  larger  part  in  the  life  of  the 
community  than  ever  before.  The  National  Community 
Center  Association  has  been  organized  as  a  definite  part 
of  the  National  Education  Association,  to  instruct 
teachers,  coimty  officials,  and  group  leaders  in  problems 
of  community  organization  and  community  service. 
The  immediate  ptirpose  of  this  association  is  to  link 
the  community  with  the  nation. 

The  community  center  movement  received  its  first 
impulse  from  Thomas  Jefferson  when  this  nation  was 
organized.  As  a  distinct  organization,  however,  it  had 
its  origin  in  1888  at  Hull  House,  Chicago.  It  has  grown 
from  this  small  beginning,  where  social  settlement  work 
was  its  chief  purpose,  to  include  public-school  teachers 
and  farmers,  recreation  centers,  wider  use  of  the  schools 
and  school  buildings,  and  social  and  civic  centers,  and 
finally  the  Council  of  National  Defense  recommended 
the  nationalization  of  commtmity  councils  with  the  use 
of  school  community  centers. 

The  purpose  is  to  extend  the  community  council  system 
to  every  school  district,  to  make  the  school  plant  avail- 
able everywhere  for  community  use  with  paid  commtmity 
workers,  to  give  adequate  "overhead"  educational  in- 
formation, such  as  lecture-slide  film  package,  and  library 
service  of  a  popular  character,  to  each  center,  and  to 
educate  youth  and  adults  in  leisure  hours  to  a  sense  of 
the  worth,  use,  and  possibilities  for  inspiring  cooperative 
community  life  and  national  service. 

Cooperation  is  the  watchword  of  the  hour.  Cooper- 
ation was  essential  to  win  the  war,  to  unify  the  nation, 
to  preserve  our  liberties,  to  build  up  a  community.    All 


13*  fiDUCAtlOK  t^OR  DEMOCRACY 

the  forces  of  society  have  been  brought  together  as  never 
before;  waste  has  been  eliminated  in  order  that  the 
combined  energies  of  a  people  might  be  brought  into  play. 
Teachers  need  to  learn  this  lesson  that  the  national 
government  has  been  conducting,  and  they  need  to  secure 
first  of  all  the  cooperation  of  all  the  forces  of  the  com- 
munity for  the  better  education  of  all  the  children  and 
the  building  up  of  the  community. 


CHAPTER  XV 

DIRECTING  THE  ENERGIES  OF  THE 
COMMUNITY 

A  Teacher  on  Trial 

They  were  talking  about  the  methods  adopted  by  Jim  in  his  con- 
duct of  the  Woodruff  school — just  talking 

He  had  burned  the  district  fuel  and  worn  out  the  district  furniture 
early  and  late,  and  on  Saturdays.  He  had  introduced  domestic 
economy  and  manual  training,  to  some  extent,  by  sending  the  boys 
to  the  workshops  and  the  girls  to  the  kitchens  and  sewing-rooms  of 
the  farmers  who  allowed  those  privileges.  He  had  used  up  a  great 
deal  of  time  in  studying  farm  conditions.  He  had  induced  the  boys 
to  test  the  cows  of  the  district  for  butter-fat  yield.  He  was  studying 
the  matter  of  a  cooperative  creamery.  He  hoped  to  have  a  black- 
smith shop  on  the  schoolhouse  grounds  sometime,  where  the  boys 
could  learn  metal  working  by  repairing  the  farm  machinery,  and 
shoeing  the  farm  horses.  He  hoped  to  install  a  cooperative  laundry 
in  connection  with  the  creamery.  He  hoped  to  see  a  building 
sometime,  with  an  auditorium  where  the  people  would  meet  often 
for  moving  picture  shows,  lectures,  and  the  like,  and  he  expected 
that  most  of  the  descriptions  of  foreign  lands,  industrial  operations, 
wild  animals — in  short,  everything  that  people  should  learn  about 
by  seeing,  rather  than  reading — would  be  taught  the  children  by 
moving  pictures  accompanied  by  lectures. 

— Herbert  Quick,  The  Brown  Mouse,  page  156 

How  can  the  community's  energies  be  directed?    In 

what  ways  can  the  teaching  force  of  a  community  direct 
the  organized  energies  of  a  community?  When  the 
children  of  a  community  are  instructed,  only  a  part  of 
the  duties  of  the  school  have  been  performed.  In  addi- 
tion to  doing  this  work,  the  school  should  have  some- 
thing of  value  for  the  young  people  who  are  not  in  school 
and  for  the  busy  men  and  women  of  the  neighborhood. 
In  a  large  majority  of  cases  teachers  have  thought 
only  of  how  the  citizens  can  serve  the  school,  and  parents 

133 


134  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

think  they  have  done  their  duty  when  they  supply 
children  and  schoolhouse  and  money  and  elect  the 
teachers.  As  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  teachers,  however, 
they  will  sometimes  assemble  at  school  to  witness  exercises 
if  they  are  not  too  busy  and  if  their  children  take  a 
prominent  part. 

But  this  is  not  cooperation  in  the  larger  sense.  How 
can  the  school,  then,  serve  the  community  in  such  a 
way  as  to  secure  this  larger  cooperation?  How  can  the 
united  energies  of  a  community  be  directed  by  the  school 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  for  community  progress  and 
human  betterment?  The  teacher  should  begin  at  this 
point.  What  is  the  most  needful  thing  to  be  done  for 
the  community? 

1.  Reconstruction  work.  Work  that  is  related  to 
reconstruction  is  now,  of  course,  the  first  need  of  every 
community.  For  many  years  to  come  the  example  of 
mothers  coming  to  the  school  to  register,  children  taking 
home  food  pledge  cards,  fathers  coming  to  the  school 
to  hear  the  issues  of  the  war  discussed,  and  all  classes 
and  ages  using  the  school  to  organize  for  patriotic  work, 
should  serve  the  teacher  as  a  fine  lesson  in  school  and 
community  cooperation.  A  school  that  did  not  touch 
the  community  during  the  war  in  one  of  the  many  ways 
open  to  it  for  patriotic  work  was  a  dead  school  indeed. 

2.  Conservation  of  health.  Conserving  the  health  of  a 
community  is  perhaps  the  next  most  important  need. 
Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood,  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  published  the  following  startling  figures: 

The  principle  of  national  thrift  finds  its  first  and  most  vital  appli- 
cation in  the  conservation  and  improvement  of  the  health  of  the 
children.  At  least  i  per  cent  —  220,000  —  of  the  22,000,000  school 
children  in  the  United  States  are  mentally  defective. 


DIRECTING  THE  COMMUNITY'S  ENERGIES      135 

Over  I  per  cent,  250,000  at  least,  of  the  children  are  handicapped 
by  organic  heart  disease. 

At  least  5  per  cent  — 1,000,000  children — have  now,  or  have  had, 
tuberculosis,  a  danger  often  to  others  as  well  as  to  themselves. 

Five  per  cent  —  i  ,000,000  —  of  them  have  defective  hearing, 
which,  unrecognized,  gives  many  the  undeserved  reputation  of 
being  mentally  defective. 

Twenty-five  per  cent — 5,000,000 — of  these  school  children  have 
defective  eyes.  All  but  a  small  percentage  of  these  can  be  corrected, 
and  yet  a  majority  of  them  have  received  no  attention. 

Fifteen  to  25  per  cent — 3,000,000  to  5,000,000 — of  them  are 
suffering  from  malnutrition,  and  poverty  is  not  the  most  important 
cause  of  this  serious  barrier  to  healthy  development. 

From  15  to  25  per  cent — 3,000,000  to  5,000,000 — have  adenoids 
diseased  tonsils,  or  other  glandular  defects. 

From  10  to  20  per  cent — 2,000,000  to  4,000,000 — have  weak 
foot  arches,  weak  spines,  or  other  joint  defects. 

From  50  to  75  per  cent — 11,000,000  to  16,000,000 — of  our  school 
children  have  defective  teeth,  and  all  defective  teeth  are  more  or  less 
injurious  to  health.  Some  of  these  defective  teeth  are  deadly 
menaces  to  their  owners. 

Seventy-five  per  cent  — 16,000,000 — of  the  school  children  of 
the  United  States  have  physical  defects  which  are  potentially  or 
actually  detrimental  to  health.  Most  of  these  defects  are  reme- 
diable.i 

It  is  the  right  of  every  citizen  to  be  healthy,  and  a 
duty  to  do  nothing  that  will  prevent  other  people  from 
being  healthy.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  all  people 
to  cooperate  toward  this  end.  One  important  question 
for  the  school  to  answer  is :  What  is  the  cause  of  sickness 
or  poor  health  in  the  community? 

The  house  fly  is  always  a  pest  and  a  cause  of  disease. 
Poor  milk,  bad  sewerage,  tmsanitary  closets,  bad  ventila- 
tion, poor  food,  unsanitary  surroundings,  etc.,  are  causes 
of  poor  health.  The  community  should  be  studied,  and 
the  removal  of  the  chief  cause  should  be  made  the  object 

^New  York  Times,  April  14,  1918. 


136  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  the  club-work  in  which  parents,  teachers,  health 
officers,  and  school  children  take  part.  What  have  other 
communities  in  this  or  in  other  countries  done  to 
improve  living  conditions?  The  story  of  how  Rio  de 
Janiero  has  risen  from  one  of  the  most  unhealthful  cities 
of  the  world  to  one  of  the  most  healthful,  of  how  the 
citizens  are  protected  from  flies  and  mosquitoes,  would  be 
a  profitable  lesson  for  any  community. 

The  community  playground  should  be  encouraged  as  a 
remedy  for  physical  defects,  both  for  children  in  school 
and  for  young  people  of  the  neighborhood.  There 
should  be  a  regular  campaign  to  urge  the  young  to  play 
more  out  in  the  open.  It  is  said  that  not  over  30  per 
cent  of  the  children  even  in  our  towns  and  cities  derive 
any  advantage  from  playgrounds.  So  valuable  has  the 
work  of  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of 
America  become,  that  Secretary  of  War  Baker  declared, 
"I  regard  the  work  of  the  Commission  on  Training  Camp 
Activities  as  a  most  significant  factor  in  winning  the  war." 

3.  Make  this  children's  year.  President  Wilson  sent  a 
letter  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  in  which  he  says : 

Next  to  the  duty  of  doing  everything  possible  for  the  soldiers  at 
the  front,  there  could  be,  it  seems  to  me,  no  more  patriotic  duty 
than  that  of  protecting  the  children,  who  constitute  one-third  of 
our  population. 

The  success  of  the  eflforts  made  in  England  in  behalf  of  the  children 
is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  infant  death  rate  in  England  for 
the  second  year  of  the  war  was  the  lowest  in  her  history.  Attention 
is  now  being  given  to  education  and  labor  conditions  for  children 
by  the  legislature  of  both  France  and  England,  showing  that  the 
conviction  among  the  Allies  is  that  the  protection  of  childhood  is 
essential  to  winning  the  war. 

I  am  very  glad  that  the  same  processes  are  being  set  afoot  in  this 
c»untry,  and  I  heartily  approve  the  plan  of  the  Children's  Bureau 
and  the  Woman's  Committee  of  the  Coxmdl  of  National  Defense 


DIRECTING  THE   COMMUNITY'S   ENERGIES      137 

for  making  the  second  year  of  the  war  one  of  united  activity  on 
behalf  of  children,  and  in  that  sense  a  children's  year. 

I  tnist  that  the  year  will  not  only  see  the  goal  reached  of  saving 
100,000  lives  of  infants  and  young  children,  but  that  the  work  may 
so  successfully  develop  as  to  set  up  certain  irreducible  minimum 
standards  for  the  health,  education,  and  work  of  the  American  child. 

The  teachers  should  make  every  year  children's  year. 
It  is  their  business. 

4.  The  needs  of  the  women.  The  needs  of  the  women 
of  the  community  may  determine  the  direction  which 
the  work  of  the  school  and  community  shall  take. 

The  Normal  School  at  Florence,  Alabama,  has  been  assisting 
the  farm  women  in  making  and  selUng  butter.  During  this  time 
several  thousand  pounds  of  high-grade  butter  have  been  put  on  the 
market  at  an  increase  of  as  much  as  125  per  cent  in  price,  not  due 
to  war  prices,  but  due  to  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  butter, 
the  style  of  the  package  put  up,  and  to  the  use  of  the  parcel  post 
for  shipping  instead  of  selling  to  country  storekeepers  or  peddlers. 

The  work  is  sometimes  started  in  a  county  by  finding  one  person 
who  makes  good  butter  and  showing  her  how  to  fix  it  for  shipping 
by  parcel  post.  When  the  news  begins  to  spread  aroimd  through 
the  country  that  certain  people  are  shipping  butter  through  the  mail 
and  getting  almost  double  what  they  had  been  getting,  the  interest 
begins  to  grow. 

How  easily  any  rural  teacher  could  give  her  patrons  a  demon- 
stration of  the  best  methods  of  packing  butter  for  parcel  post  ship- 
ments! When  one  woman  of  a  neighborhood  leams  how  to  prepare 
and  to  market  butter,  the  work  will  go  on.^ 

Women  have  been  organized  into  societies  in  rural 
communities  and  have  been  taught  how  to  keep  the 
most  profitable  poultry  and  to  grade  the  eggs  and  market 
them  to  the  best  advantage. 

Needle  work  has  become  the  object  around  which  the 
women  of  a  community  are  centered.     The  discarded 

1  Educational  Exchange. 
10 


138  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

garments  of  women,  the  left-over  scraps  or  remnants  of 
materials,  and  the  discarded  clothing  of  men  are  all 
used.  One  school  hired  a  tailor  for  a  few  days  to  give 
the  girls  and  women  a  few  lessons.  One  mother  dis- 
covered a  way  to  give  her  two  boys  a  large  supply  of 
white  neglig^  collars  at  comparatively  no  expense. 
The  material  used  was  scraps  of  white  cloth  left  from 
various  shirtwaists. 

Domestic  science  teachers  have  been  employed  by  the 
school  and  community  jointly  to  give  lessons  in  cooking. 
This  became  a  necessity  when  the  food  shortage  had 
upset  all  old  recipes.  Moreover,  community  canning 
clubs  have  been  formed,  the  school  and  the  community 
working  jointly  to  preserve  as  much  food  as  possible. 

Outside  pressure  is  actually  forcing  the  school  and  the 
community  together,  and  a  teacher  to-day  who  cannot 
arrange  a  good  program  that  will  interest  a  large  num- 
ber of  women  is  simply  marking  time  and  incidentally 
teaching  a  few  children. 

5.  The  needs  of  the  men.  The  needs  of  the  men  of  a 
community  should  be  one  of  the  main  considerations 
in  school  and  community  work.  The  farmers  surround- 
ing Lowe's  Grove  Farm  Life  School  in  North  Carolina, 
for  example,  were  unable  to  raise  fruit,  save  now  and  then 
when  nature  favored  them.  The  principal  of  the  school 
in  19 1 6  made  a  survey  of  the  orchards.  With  the  aid 
of  the  high-school  boys  he  kept  the  trees  pruned  and 
sprayed.  He  suggested  the  kind  of  trees  to  plant  and 
assisted  in  the  planting.  As  a  result,  in  the  spring  of 
19 1 8  the  school  was  called  upon  to  prune  sixteen  orchards 
and  spray  twenty-one.  Through  the  activity  of  the 
school  the  neighborhood  that  had  been  a  poor  orchard 
section  is  now  as  productive  as  any  section  in  the  county. 


DIRECTING   THE   COMMUNITY'S    ENERGIES      139 

It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  maintain  an  orchard  club 
in  the  Lowe's  Grove  community. 

The  school-garden  clubs,  which  will  be  discussed  more 
at  length  in  chapter  xxv,  offer  fine  opportunities  for  the 
organization  of  patrons  and  pupils.  The  patrons  possess 
much  practical  knowledge  that  the  teacher  needs.  They 
should  therefore  be  invited  to  come  to  the  school  and 
to  talk  on  the  subject  of  gardens.  The  school-garden 
movement  has  spread  all  over  the  nation. 

The  planning  and  ordering  of  seed  for  the  community 
may  be  done  in  school.  There  seed-testing  demonstra- 
tions may  be  given.  Publications  of  experiment  stations 
may  be  read  and  distributed  among  interested  persons; 
trips  may  be  taken  into  the  rural  districts  to  visit  the 
best  gardens,  and  incidentally  to  observe  methods  of 
raising  fruit,  poultry,  and  dairy  products.  Vacant  lots 
may  easily  be  utilized  by  the  school,  and  the  boys  of  the 
school  may  be  organized  into  clubs  to  do  work  during 
vacation,  for  which  they  should  be  paid  the  usual  price 
for  such  work. 

Secretary  Franklin  K.  Lane  has  advised  boys  who  are 
cultivating  gardens  to  name  them  after  soldiers  who 
have  gone  to  France.  This  resulted,  it  is  said,  in  the 
naming  of  thousands  of  gardens  after  soldier  boys.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  this  gave  an  additional  motive  for  culti- 
vating school  gardens. 

Every  school  might  have  something  of  value  for  the 
patrons  of  the  community.  Such  help  might  be  given 
in  connection  with  the  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  It  might 
be  in  the  wise  use  of  the  library.  Teachers  might  make 
a  point  of  selecting  certain  books  or  articles  from  news- 
papers and  sending  them  to  patrons  with  instructions 
as  to  what  they  contain. 


140  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Cooperative  buying  and  selling,  rural  credit,  community 
savings  banks — these  and  a  nimiber  of  other  things 
could  form  the  basis  of  school  and  community  cooperation. 

Wherever  such  cooperation  is  effected,  patrons,  pupils, 
and  teachers,  all  are  discussing  the  same  things,  and  the 
educative  value  is  just  about  threefold  greater  than  when 
the  teacher  alone  is  the  chief  talker. 

6.  Food  conservation.  Food  conservation  should  form 
a  part  of  school  and  community  instruction.  Those  who 
were  living  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  know  something 
of  the  efforts  made  then  to  conserve  all  material  that 
might  be  of  any  use  whatever.  Parents  taught  their 
children  that  it  was  a  sin  to  destroy  food,  and  teachers 
reprimanded  or  otherwise  punished  pupils  who  deliber- 
ately threw  food  away.  Children  were  taught  in  the 
homes  that  it  was  not  good  manners  to  leave  food  on 
their  plates  and  that  the  saving  and  conserving  of  food 
and  other  useful  material  were  cardinal  virtues.  Thus 
the  school  and  the  home  taught  the  same  lesson. 

This  instruction  covered  a  period  of  about  a  quarter 
of  a  centtuy  following  the  Civil  War.  Then  there  came 
an  era  of  extravagance.  Manners  changed.  It  was  now 
considered  common  or  greedy  or  bourgeois  to  eat  all 
that  was  put  on  the  plate.  The  health  officer  began  to 
appear,  and  he  taught  that  putrefying  food  was  danger- 
ous to  health  and  that  it  was  better  to  bum  it  than  to 
throw  it  away.     What  was  once  a  sin  now  became  a  virtue. 

But  the  garbage  cans  increased  in  size,  the  wasted 
food  was  carted  away  in  barrels  and  used  for  fertilizer 
or  as  food  for  hogs,  while  the  poor  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  could  barely  secure  even  the  merest  necessities. 

Then  came  the  end  of  the  old  regime.  The  World 
War  drew  millions  of  laborers  from  productive  employ- 


DIRECTING  THE   COMMUNITY'S   ENERGIES      141 

ment,  and  a  food  shortage  in  the  world  made  enlightened 
people  everywhere  painfully  conscious  of  their  extrava- 
gant and  wasteful  habits;  society  returned  to  the  simple 
doctrine  taught  in  the  home  and  the  school  at  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  and  children  and  adults  alike  are 
again  learning  the  lesson  that  extravagance  is  a  social 
evil  and  that  to  destroy  food  is  a  sin.  The  world  should 
never  again  forget  this  lesson,  which  has  been  releamed 
after  so  much  suffering. 

When  the  National  Food  Administration  called  upon 
the  schools  to  secure  signers  to  the  food  pledge  cards, 
the  response  was  immediate,  and  the  finest  tribute  that 
can  be  paid  to  a  democracy  is  the  compliment  that 
Mr.  Hoover  paid  to  the  American  people  when  he  said 
that  they  had  voluntarily  saved  and  sacrificed  and  that  as 
a  result  the  Allies  in  Europe  were  fed  and  their  cause  was 
saved.  Notwithstanding  the  great  response,  there  are 
still  large  nimibers  of  people  under  the  tyranny  of  old 
customs  and  traditions  who  take  a  selfish  or  individual- 
istic view  of  life  and  hold  that  they  are  under  no  obliga- 
tion either  to  save  or  to  sacrifice. 

Here  then  is  a  great  opportunity  for  the  school.  Teach- 
ers can  help  to  overcome  such  an  attitude  by  so  organiz- 
ing a  community  and  building  up  a  community  spirit 
that  a  sense  of  cooperation  pervades  the  entire  neighbor- 
hood.    Organized  public  opinion  rules  the  world. 

7.  Forest  preservation.  Preservation  of  the  trees  and 
forests  is  a  vital  subject  for  both  school  and  community. 
The  war  has  made  a  heavy  draft  upon  the  forests.  The 
health  and  property  of  a  people  depend  upon  great 
stretches  of  forests  and  widely  distributed  areas  of  shade. 
There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  fruit-  and  nut-bearing 
trees.     Our  streets  and  highways  should  be  lined  with 


142  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

trees,  and  our  school  grounds,  our  lawns,  and  our  parks 
should  be  filled  with  trees. 

Governor  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  a 
proclamation  setting  apart  Arbor  Day  in  his  native  state, 
said: 

One  cannot  think  of  a  treeless  country  as  a  great  country.  If  we 
are  to  have  a  continuous  flow  of  life-giving  water  in  our  streams ;  if 
we  are  to  maintain  our  rapidly  increasing  population  in  health  and 
happiness;  if  we  are  to  provide  recreation  that  is  wholesome  and 
helpful;  if  we  are  to  increase  the  necessary  animal  life  to  provide 
food  for  our  people;  if  we  are  to  multiply  the  flocks  of  insect-devour- 
ing and  song-throated  birds;  if  we  are  to  restore  and  maintain  the 
Pennsylvania  that  was  once  our  happy  heritage,  we  must  plant  trees. 

The  state  of  Nebraska  has  gone  a  bow  shot  beyond 
all  other  states  by  a  resolution  adopted  by  the  General 
Assembly  and  approved  by  the  governor  in  1895,  which 
designates  Nebraska  as  "Tree  Planters'  State. "^ 

8.  Social  recreation  for  the  young  people.  The  school 
should  promote  social  recreation  for  the  young  people 
of  the  community.  In  the  larger  cities  there  are  so  many 
centers  of  interest  that  the  school  can  hardly  compete 
with  all  of  them.  However,  its  literary  societies  and 
other  organizations  may  afford  an  opportunity  for  bring- 
ing all  classes  together  even  where  society  is  stratified. 

In  the  villages  and  towns  and  rural  communities  the 
school  building  is  the  one  center  where  social  enter- 
tainments should  be  held.  There  society  is  stratified 
least,  and  caste  is  not  in  evidence.  The  obligation  of  the 
school  to  promote  social  recreation  for  those  young 
people  and  their  parents  is  all  the  more  imperative. 
Moving-picture  shows  may  now  be  proctired,  victrola 
concerts  may  be  given,  plays,  drills,  and  stories  may  be 

^  See  Brooks,  Agriculture  and  Rural  Life  Day,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C. 


DIRECTING  THE  COMMUNITY'S   ENERGIES      143 

provided,  quartets  and  duets  and  community  singing 
may  be  encouraged,  current  events  pertaining  to  any 
vital  question  may  be  discussed.  In  North  Carolina 
"it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  to  provide  for  a  series  of  rural  enter- 
tainments varying  in  nimiber  and  cost  consisting  of 
moving  pictures  selected  for  their  entertainment  and 
educational  value,"  and  one-third  of  the  cost  will  be 
paid  by  the  state. 

In  Bloomington,  Illinois,  community  singing  played 
a  large  part  in  the  civic  life  of  the  people  during  the 
last  winter  of  the  war.  Local  musicians  gave  liberally 
of  their  time,  civic  organizations  cooperated  by  taking 
care  of  the  announcements,  and  nearly  every  school  held 
a  concert  once  every  two  weeks. 

Such  social  recreation  and  entertainment  have  decided 
moral  values  that  affect  a  community  for  good. 

9.  Service  flags.  Every  school  should  preserve  its  serv- 
ice flag.  It  should  never  forget  the  names  of  the 
boys  of  the  community  who  went  to  the  war,  and  at  least 
once  dtuing  the  year  the  people  of  the  community  should 
meet  at  the  school  to  pay  tribute  to  those  whose  lives 
were  offered  up  for  the  benefit  of  humanity.  This  will 
give  an  opportunity  to  discuss  the  causes  of  the  war, 
the  high  moral  stand  this  nation  has  taken,  and  the  eternal 
values  that  should  result  from  the  great  sacrifice. 

10.  Other  methods  oj  cooperation.  Many  other  ways 
are  open  for  the  cooperation  of  school  and  community. 
The  aesthetic  life  of  the  people  should  be  stimulated. 
Keeping  the  school,  the  home,  the  church,  and  other 
public  buildings  and  grounds  clean  and  attractive  should 
bs  a  constant  aim  of  the  organized  life  of  both  the  school 
and  the  community.    We  are  having  much  to  say  about 


144  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

the  ruthlessness  of  the  armies  of  the  Central  Powers  in 
destroying  the  great  cathedrals  of  Europe,  in  laying  waste 
the  country,  and  in  stripping  the  land  of  its  works  of  art. 
Boys  and  girls,  young  men  and  old  men,  who  destroy 
or  deface  public  buildings,  park  playgrounds,  or  in  any 
way  seek  to  diminish  beauty  in  the  world  should  hence- 
forth be  classed  with  those  vandals  of  Europe  who  brought 
so  much  sorrow  to  mankind. 

The  installation  of  running  water,  electric  lights,  and 
telephones  in  country  homes  will  make  rural  life  more 
attractive,  and  discussion  of  these  improvements  should 
find  a  place  in  every  school  program.  Fire  prevention 
may  be  so  emphasized  that  millions  of  dollars  worth 
of  property  now  lost  through  carelessness  may  be  saved. 

Roads  and  streets  may  be  studied,  and  the  best  means 
of  constructing  them  and  preserving  them  after  they  are 
constructed  might  form  the  principal  part  of  a  program 
once  or  twice  during  the  year. 

Each  community  has  some  peculiar  problem  that  the 
school  might  help  to  solve,  and  in  the  cooperation  of 
school  and  community  the  teacher  will  be  directing  the 
energies  of  the  people  for  good.  One  trouble  in  the  past 
has  been  that  teachers  seemed  to  believe  that  all  the 
subject  matter  worth  while  for  the  children  was  to  be 
found  in  the  adopted  textbooks,  and  they  have  been 
little  inclined  to  go  out  into  the  community  and  supple- 
ment the  textbook  with  wholesome  and  live  material. 


PART  III 
A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  EDUCATION 


Higher  Values  in  Education 

Pupils  must  be  trained  in  the  processes  and  power  of  judging 
fundamental  values.  They  must  come  to  know  the  meaning  and 
significance  of  the  ideals  and  institutions  of  our  civilization.  Their 
insight  into  values  must  go  beyond  the  vocation  that  shall  yield 
them  a  living.  No  man  is  equipped  for  life  without  some  vocation; 
neither  is  he  so  equipped  merely  because  he  is  trained  for  a  vocation, 
no  matter  how  expert  he  may  become  in  it.  He  may  have  very 
distorted  ideas  of  personal  responsibility  and  of  the  relation  of  his 
vocation  to  the  good  of  society 

Probably  the  school  has  not  done  as  much  as  it  ought  to  have  done 
in  this  matter  of  making  sure  that  the  higher  and  more  compre- 
hensive values  appeal  strongly  to  youth;  that  they  not  only  recog- 
nize them  intellectually  but  also  prize  them.  From  the  social 
point  of  view  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  edu- 
cation. The  school,  however,  is  not  wholly  to  blame  for  failure 
at  this  point.  Society  is  so  organized  that  its  own  activities  focus 
rather  sharply  the  attention  of  children  upon  individualistic  and 
materialistic  and  selfish  aims.  The  other  institutions  of  society, 
as  well  as  the  school,  must  come  to  realize  the  importance  of  inten- 
sifj^ng  the  appreciation  of  things  that  have  the  larger  social  sig- 
nificance. 

—  Miller,  Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life 


CHAPTER  XVI 

A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  CLASSROOM 
INSTRUCTION 

What  the  Schools  Must  Change 

There  are  three  things  about  the  old-fashioned  school  which 
must  be  changed  if  schools  are  to  reflect  modem  society:  first,  the 
subject-matter,  second,  the  way  the  teacher  handles  it,  and  third, 
the  way  the  pupils  handle  it.  The  subject-matter  will  not  be 
altered  as  to  name.  Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography 
will  always  be  needed,  but  their  substance  will  be  greatly  altered 
and  added  to 

But  the  schools  are  still  teaching  reading  and  writing  as  if  they 
were  ends  in  themselves,  simply  luxuries  to  be  acquired  by  pupils 
for  their  private  edification.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  geography; 
pupils  learn  boundaries,  populations,  and  rivers  as  if  their  object 
was  to  store  up  facts 

So  teachers,  instead  of  having  their  classes  read  and  then  recite 
facts  from  textbooks,  must  change  their  methods.  Facts  present 
themselves  to  every  one  in  countless  numbers,  and  it  is  not  their 
naming  that  is  useful,  but  the  ability  to  imderstand  them  and  see 
their  relation  and  application  to  each  other.  So  the  fimction  of  the 
teacher  must  change  from  that'of  a  cicerone  and  dictator  to  that 

of  a  watcher  and  helper 

—  John  Dewey,  Schools  of  Tomorrow 

Need  of  a  new  aim.  The  school  has  two  duties  in 
particular:  First,  as  a  social  institution  it  should  seek 
to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  the  community,  the 
state,  and  the  nation.  This  subject  has  been  discussed 
in  Parts  I  and  II.  Secondly,  it  should  seek  to  promote 
the  growth  and  proper  development  of  individual  pupils. 
The  two  duties  are  so  related  that  it  is  difficult  to  separate 
them  entirely.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  has  been  confined  to 
the  latter. 

147 


148  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

In  instructing  the  youth  in  the  schoob'oom,  teachers 
have  in  the  past  made  the  mistake  of  looking  upon 
the  acqtiisition  of  knowledge  as  the  end  of  instruction. 
"Elnowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers,"  and  the  per- 
manent values  that  come  through  knowledge  are  included 
imder  the  head  of  wisdom.  They  are  spiritual,  not 
material  values.  However,  instructors  have  been  too 
much  inclined  to  emphasize  the  material  rather  than 
the  spiritual.  This  has  led  teachers  to  make  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  knowledge  incorporated  in  textbooks  the 
goal  of  instruction.  Since  textbooks  are  really  essential, 
learning  the  contents  of  a  graded  selection  of  books  has 
become  the  chief  part  of  school  work. 

Teachers,  therefore,  need  a  new  aim.  They  need  to 
shift  the  emphasis  from  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  as 
an  end  to  something  higher,  using  subject  matter  as  a 
means  to  the  end.  A  new  aim  will  lead  teachers  to  seek 
more  useful  knowledge  in  order  that  they  may  be  con- 
scious of  attaining  the  desired  end. 

Factors  in  the  attainment  of  the  new  aim.  The 
factors  in  the  promotion  of  individual  progress  and  social 
well-being  are  many  and  complex.  But  since  the  begin- 
ning of  history  they  have  been  classified  under  these  two 
heads,  the  material  and  the  spiritual.  The  first  includes 
geographic  influences,  nattiral  resources,  economic  deter- 
minism, wealth,  and  human  as  well  as  material  power. 
The  second  includes  all  the  impulses  of  the  soul  —  the 
intent  of  man  and  groups  of  men,  their  hopes  and  ambi- 
tions, their  inner  longing  for  freedom,  for  an  equal  chance, 
for  relief  from  tyranny,  and  for  the  equality  of  souls 
and  equal  opportunities  in  the  kingdoms  of  this  world 
as  well  as  in  the  kingdom  to  be.  Which  of  these  factors 
does  the  teacher  keep  foremost?    They  are  related  as 


NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION    149 

body  to  sotd.  But  nations  as  well  as  individuals  must 
answer  the  world-old  question:  What  shall  a  man  give 
in  exchange  for  his  soul? 

If  the  mere  acctmiulation  of  knowledge,  therefore,  is 
the  immediate  aim  of  the  teacher,  the  instruction  is  at 
its  lowest  ebb.  It  is  materialistic,  since  it  deals  in  quan- 
tities of  history,  of  mathematics,  or  of  geography.  If  the 
aim,  however,  is  good  citizenship  and  the  subject  matter 
is  used  as  a  means  to  attain  that  aim,  the  material  is 
used  to  exalt  the  spiritual,  and  instruction  is  reaching  a 
higher  level.  Character,  right  living,  properly  directed 
energy,  etc.,  take  precedence  over  the  mere  acquisition 
of  knowledge  as  an  end  of  instruction. 

Value  of  a  new  aim.  Moreover,  the  proper  use  of  the 
knowledge  acquired  is  a  higher  aim  than  simply  learning 
for  knowledge's  sake. 

Such  an  aim  as  the  former  will  lead  the  teacher  to 
shift  the  emphasis  in  a  mmiber  of  cases  from  certain  old 
subjects  to  new  subjects  heretofore  neglected.  For 
example,  in  history  and  geography  there  is  a  greater 
need  now  than  ever  before  for  devoting  more  time  and 
thought  to  the  Latin-American  countries  in  order  that 
we  may  the  better  appreciate  the  civilization  of  those 
republics  and  effect  a  better  relationship  between  them 
and  the  great  North  American  republic.  Moreover,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  history  of  modem  Evirope  should  be 
given  greater  emphasis  than  the  history  of  the  ancient 
people. 

In  arithmetic  the  emphasis  should  be  shifted  from 
problems  or  exercises  that  are  purely  academic  to  those 
that  have  an  additional  value  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 
For  example,  the  old  exercises  that  simply  taught  the 
student  how  to  calculate  percentage  have  less  value  than 


150  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

an  exercise  that  teaches  this  and  at  the  same  time  con- 
veys an  additional  truth,  such  as  the  calculation  of  the 
percentage  of  gain  or  loss  in  cultivating  a  particular 
acre  of  com  in  order  to  learn  whether  the  energy  is 
properly  directed.  Two  values  are  derived  from  this 
latter  exercise  against  one  from  the  former.  And  this 
is  true  of  all  instruction  where  the  aim  is  higher  than  the 
mere  acquisition  of  skill  or  knowledge. 

Teachers,  therefore,  should  formulate  an  aim  that  is 
beyond  the  mere  completion  of  an  exercise,  and  as  an 
aid  such  questions  as  these  might  be  helpful: 

How  do  I  expect  to  use  the  knowledge  acquired  and 
how  shall  I  teach  pupils  to  use  it?  What  do  I  expect 
to  accomplish  by  this  particular  subject  during  this 
particular  year?  How  shall  the  result  of  my  instruction 
affect  the  growth  of  the  child  during  this  particular 
year?  Is  it  my  purpose  to  make  him  a  better  citizen? 
What  should  be  emphasized  now  that  has  not  been 
emphasized  heretofore?  What  may  I  draw  from  the 
commimity  to  supplement  the  subject  matter  of  the 
textbooks  that  will  help  me  attain  my  aim? 

In  an  attempt  to  make  the  community  a  better  place 
in  which  to  live,  the  aim  should  be  to  improve  the  char- 
acter and  ideals  both  of  the  pupils  and  of  the  community 
in  order  to  improve  the  citizenship.  What  is  this  basis 
of  good  citizenship?  Not  merely  so  much  knowledge 
of  history  or  literature  or  geography  or  mathematics  or 
science.  Such  knowledge  disassociated  from  the  ideal 
may  produce  either  a  saint  or  a  devil.  Hence  arises  the 
danger  from  a  low  aim  in  teaching.  What  the  teacher 
is  able  to  do  with  the  lesson  after  knowledge  has  been 
acquired  is  the  determining  factor  in  the  making  of  a 
good  citizen. 


NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION      151 

The  aim  of  the  community  in  establishing  schools  has 
too  often  been  entirely  too  low.  Large  sums  of  money 
have  been  donated  or  appropriated,  not  primarily  for 
the  education  of  children,  but  to  improve  the  hogs, 
cattle,  or  poultry,  to  raise  more  com  or  wheat  or  cotton, 
or  to  perpetuate  some  political  theory  or  religious  dogma. 
In  the  past  the  aim  has  kept  in  view,  not  the  child,  but 
some  institution. 

The  purpose  of  the  following  chapters,  therefore,  is  to 
give  instructors  a  new  aim  in  teaching.  Regard  for  law 
and  order,  a  quickened  moral  sense,  well-directed  energies, 
a  properly  enlightened  people,  and  useful  knowledge  about 
life  and  how  to  make  a  living  —  these  are  the  aims  set  forth. 

Dewey  says  that  the  subject  matter  will  not  be  altered 
as  to  name,  but  that  the  substance  will  be  greatly  altered 
and  added  to  and  that  the  teachers  must  change  their 
methods.  The  first  step  to  take  in  changing  old  methods 
is  to  raise  the  aim  of  instruction. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

REGARD   FOR   LAW  AND   ORDER   THE   BASIS 
OF  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP 

Teaching  Respect  for  Law  and  Order 

Every  school  ought  to  be  a  center  where  respect  for  law  and 
obedience  to  law  are  inculcated. 

—  Robert  J.  Aley,  President  of  the  University  of  Maine 

What  we  seek  is  the  reign  of  law  based  upon  the  consent  of  the 
governed  and  sustained  by  the  organized  opinion  of  mankind. 

I  can  never  accept  any  man  as  the  champion  of  liberty  either  for 
ourselves  or  for  the  world  who  does  not  reverence  and  obey  the 
laws  of  our  own  beloved  land,  whose  laws  we  ourselves  have  made. 
He  has  adopted  the  standards  of  the  enemies  of  his  country,  whom 
he  affects  to  despise. 

We  proudly  claim  to  be  the  champions  of  democracy.  If  we 
really  are,  in  deed  and  in  truth,  let  us  see  to  it  that  we  do  not  dis- 
credit our  own.  I  say  plainly  that  every  American  who  takes  part 
in  the  action  of  a  mob  or  gives  it  any  sort  of  countenance  is  no  true 
son  of  this  great  democracy,  but  its  betrayer,  and  does  more  to  dis- 
credit her  by  that  single  disloyalty  to  her  standards  of  law  and  of 
right  than  the  words  of  her  statesmen  or  the  sacrifices  of  her  heroic 
boys  in  the  trenches  can  do  to  make  suflFering  peoples  believe  her  to 
be  their  savior.  How  shall  we  commend  democracy  to  the  accept- 
ance of  other  peoples,  if  we  disgrace  our  own  by  proving  that  it  is, 
after  all,  no  protection  to  the  weak? 

—  WooDROw  Wilson 

Law  holds  society  together.  Law  is  the  invisible  bond 
that  holds  society  together  and  supplies  liberty  to  each 
individual.  Without  it  society  could  not  exist.  When 
the  individual,  therefore,  speaks  of  liberty  and  boasts  of 
his  independence,  he  is  consciously  or  unconsciously 
admitting  that  the  law  of  society  is  great  enough  so  to 
regulate  the  habits  of  all  people  that  he  may  move  and 
live  and  pursue  his  happiness  and  enjoy  well-being  without 
interference. 

153 


THE  BASIS   OF  GOOD   CITIZENSHIP  153 

Moreover,  the  individual  who  boasts  that  he  does  not 
observe  the  social  code,  that  he  can  defy  the  conven- 
tionalities of  the  race,  and  that  he  does  just  as  he  pleases, 
is  undermining  the  very  foundations  of  society  and 
restricting  not  only  his  own  liberty  but  that  of  every 
member  of  society.  The  first  step,  therefore,  in  the  mak- 
ing of  a  citizen  is  to  plant  in  him  a  respect  for  law  and 
for  the  institutions  that  seek  to  preserve  law  and  order. 

Necessity  for  teaching  law  and  order.  The  schools 
have  been  too  negligent  of  this  subject.  It  has  been 
professionaHzed,  and  only  those  who  expect  to  follow  the 
legal  profession,  as  a  nile,  are  taught  even  the  rudimentary 
principles  of  this  subject.  Every  citizen,  however,  is  a 
member  of  society,  and  since  law  is  the  bond  that  holds 
society  together  it  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  make  this 
subject  an  important  aim  of  school  instruction. 

There  are  too  many  people  in  the  world  who  are  not 
willing  to  abide  by  the  rule  of  the  majority.  Moreover, 
there  are  those  who  have  neither  the  inclination  nor  the 
patience  to  effect  such  changes  in  the  law  as  accord  with 
their  deep  convictions.  Instead,  they  set  their  individual 
opinions  above  the  organized  opinion  of  society,  seek  to 
override  its  authority,  and  create  confusion  in  the  world. 

If  democracy  is  to  prove  its  superiority  to  autocracy 
in  the  world,  the  people  of  a  democracy  must  learn  to 
obey  its  laws.  The  youth  of  America,  therefore,  should 
be  taught  respect  for  and  obedience  to  the  law  of  the  land 
which  is  the  law  of  majority  rule  supported  by  all.  It 
is  this  or  the  will  of  the  autocrat  or  mob  law. 

Evidences  of.  our  disrespect  for  law  and  order.  It  is 
charged  by  people  of  foreign  coimtries,  nations  under 
monarchical  forms  of  government,  that  "as  a  people  we 
do  not  have  that  reverence  for  the  laws  of  the  land  that 

11 


154        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

is  certainly  found  in  the  people  of  some  other  countries," 
and  that  foreigners  writing  of  our  government  have 
repeatedly  called  attention  "to  our  general  lack  of  respect 
for  law."^ 

What  evidences  are  there  of  a  "  general  lack  of  respect 
for  law"? 

I.  The  prevalence  oj  the  mob  spirit.  One  evidence  is 
the  prevalence  of  the  mob  spirit  and  the  frequency  of  mob 
violence.  The  people  are  not  disciplined  to  curb  their 
passions  and  control  their  anger  when  a  crime  has  been 
committed  in  their  midst.  In  their  haste  to  avenge  the 
deed  they  override  the  jurisdiction  of  courts  of  justice 
and  endanger  the  liberties  of  the  people  by  their  own 
lawlessness. 

President  Wilson,  deeply  concerned  over  this  growing 
tendency  to  countenance  and  encourage  mob  rule,  issued 
an  address  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  on  July  26, 
19 1 8,  in  which  he  called  upon  his  fellow  countrymen  to 
put  an  end  to  the  mob  spirit  and  to  show  to  the  world 
that  while  America  was  fighting  for  democracy  in  foreign 
fields,  its  citizens  were  not  destroying  democracy  at  home 
by  encouraging  acts  of  lawlessness  that  foster  mob  spirit. 
He  declared: 

No  man  who  loves  America,  no  man  who  really  cares  for  her  name 
and  her  character,  or  who  is  truly  loyal  to  her  institutions,  can  justify 
mob  action  while  the  courts  of  justice  are  open  and  the  governments 
of  the  states  and  nation  are  ready  and  able  to  do  their  duty.  We 
are  at  this  moment  fighting  lawless  passion,  Germany  has  out- 
lawed herself  among  the  nations,  because  she  has  disregarded  the 
sacred  obligations  of  law  and  has  made  lynchers  of  her  armies. 
Lynchers  emulate  her  disgraceful  example.  I,  for  my  part,  am 
anxious  to  see  every  community  in  America  rise  above  that  level, 
with  pride  and  a  fixed  resolution  which  no  man  or  set  of  men  can 
afford  to  despise. 

1  Robert  J.  Aley. 


THE  BASIS  OF  GOOD   CITIZENSHIP  155 

The  time  for  building  up  inhibiting  forces  in  society  is 
in  the  cahner  periods  when  society  is  not  stirred  by  any 
crime.  When  people  set  their  opinions  above  the  law 
and  intend  to  be  lawless,  nothing  short  of  a  standing  army 
can  check  them.  In  fact,  we  have  so  many  examples  of 
an  intent  to  commit  crime  and  of  the  willingness  even  of 
the  community  not  only  for  lawlessness  to  reign,  but  for 
children  to  be  the  witnesses  of  its  sanction,  that  it  has 
become,  under  certain  circumstances,  a  sort  of  noblesse 
oblige  for  an  individual  to  assvmie  the  right  to  avenge  a 
crime,  as  gentlemen  of  a  half-century  ago  felt  called  upon 
to  draw  their  swords  in  accordance  with  this  code  duello. 

2.  Juvenile  crime.  Juvenile  crime  is  another  evidence 
of  lack  of  respect  for  the  law.  Our  court  records  show 
that  children  of  all  ages  are  hailed  before  the  courts;  and 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the  evidences  show  that 
juvenile  crime  has  been  on  the  increase. 

Lawyers  and  judges  speak  of  the  majesty  of  the  law. 
But  how  many  young  people  of  today  have  respect  for 
His  Majesty?  Child  delinquency  and  juvenile  crime, 
reformatories,  and,  worse,  the  herding  of  young  people 
in  jails  or  workhouses  with  hardened  criminals,  are 
evidences  that  the  youth  of  the  country  have  not 
received  that  training  in  society  that  habituates  them  to 
an  orderly  life. 

The  riotous  youth  in  the  home  with  no  respect  for  God 
or  man  is  an  evidence  that  the  home  is  negligent  at  this 
most  vital  point.  There  is  nothing  more  exasperating  to 
the  people  of  a  community  than  a  lawless  child,  one  that 
is  declared  by  common  consent  to  be  a  nuisance  in  the 
heart  of  society.  And  yet  the  people  of  a  community 
are  more  or  less  responsible  for  the  making  of  such  a 
character.    They  declare  it  to  be  an  outlaw  and  then  kick 


156  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

it  about  from  pillar  to  post;  they  make  it  the  butt  of 
ridicule  or  hound  it  from  street  to  street  and  from  alley 
to  alley.  They  drive  it  from  school  and  chase  it  out  of 
the  playgrounds,  and  just  as  a  drove  of  hogs  is  vicious 
toward  the  runt,  so  society  is  viciously  inclined  toward  the 
morally  stunted,  especially  if  it  belongs  to  a  lower 
social  caste. 

3.  The  mob  spirit  among  boys.  The  mob  spirit  makes 
its  appearance  at  times  among  boys  of  a  community. 
They  are  too  often  considered  without  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  courts,  and  depredations  committed  by  the  group 
— by  high-school  boys,  by  college  boys  in  the  form  of 
hazing  or  in  nightly  raids  —  are  violations  that  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  indirectly  asks  the  teachers  and 
all  good  citizens  to  correct. 

But  when  the  school  would  seek  to  correct  these  evils, 
people  of  the  community  too  often  declare  that  "boys 
will  be  boys,"  and  go  to  any  length  sometimes  to  palliate 
the  offense  or  to  excuse  altogether  the  offenders,  especially 
if  they  belong  to  the  higher  social  caste. 

4.  Lack  of  respect  for  the  flag.  Before  America  entered 
the  war  the  people  of  this  country  paid  little  attention 
to  the  passing  of  the  Flag  or  to  the  singing  of  our  national 
hymns.  It  should  not  require  another  war  to  make 
American  citizens  everywhere  uncover  in  the  presence 
of  the  Flag  and  to  stand  at  attention  while  the  "Star- 
Spangled  Banner"  is  played.  This  is  merely  an  outward 
sign  of  respect  for  authority.  But  the  absence  of  this 
sign  before  the  war  had  become  a  reproach  and  was 
indeed  one  scale  by  which  Americans'  respect  for  the 
majesty  of  this  nation  might  be  measured. 

The  Stars  and  Stripes  is  the  symbol  of  the  power  and 
authority  of  this  nation,  and  whenever  people  are  so 
thoughtless  as  to  show  it  no  respect  they  axe  usually 


THE  BASIS  OF   GOOD    CITIZENSHIP  157 

ignorant  or  selfish  individualists  who  look  upon  law  at 
times  as  a  hindrance  to  their  liberties.  Therefore  a  lack 
of  respect  for  the  American  Flag  is  frequently  a  sign  of  a 
lack  of  respect  for  law  and  order. 

The  age  of  responsibility.  While  individuals  in  society 
seek  to  excuse  at  times  the  lawlessness  of  the  youth, 
society  as  a  whole  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  hold  them 
responsible  for  their  acts. 

In  every  state  the  age  of  responsibility  is  clearly  stated. 
It  does  vary,  however,  in  different  states.  In  North 
Carolina,  for  example,  no  child  xmder  seven  years  of  age 
can  be  held  responsible  in  the  coiirts  for  his  acts .  Between 
seven  and  fourteen  a  child  is  supposed  to  be  innocent. 
But  if  it  can  be  shown  that  he  is  conscious  of  the  differ- 
ence between  right  and  wrong,  he  may  be  held  responsible 
for  the  act.  After  fourteen,  however,  the  child  is 
supposed  to  be  on  the  same  legal  plane  as  the  adult. 

There  is  not  a  stage,  therefore,  from  the  primary  grades 
through  the  high  schools  at  which  ja.  child  may  not  be 
held  accountable  by  the  courts  for  his  wrongdoing,  and 
special  juvenile  cotuts  are  established  in  many  states 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  disposing  of  youthful  offenders. 

Respect  for  law  easily  taught.  It  does  not  seem  to  be 
a  difficult  task  to  inculcate  in  young  people  respect  for 
law  and  train  them  in  habits  of  obedience  to  those  in 
authority.  This  fact  is  shown  in  our  schools  to-day.  The 
writer  investigated  several  schools  and  asked  the  super- 
intendents to  give  the  number  of  students  in  each  that 
gave  trouble  on  account  of  wilful  disobedience,  and  the 
number  was  so  small  as  to  make  it  a  negligible  quantity. 
Many  students  came  from  homes  in  which  little  pains 
had  been  taken  to  teach  them  obedience  and  where 
the  reputation  of  the  children  for  lawlessness  was  posi- 
tively bad.    But  when  they  came  tmder  the  jurisdiction 


158  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  another  institution  where  law  and  order  were  the 
rule,  they  soon  became  habituated  to  the  new  rule  of 
life  and  ceased  to  be  lawless  in  that  institution.  When 
they  went  back,  however,  into  the  old  environment  where 
law  and  order  were  not  enforced,  they  were  inclined  to 
follow  old  habits.  Thus  it  is  that  children  are  sometimes 
Dr.  Jekyll  in  one  environment  and  Mr.  Hyde  in  another. 

The  juvenile  coiut  presided  over  by  Judge  Ben  Lindsey, 
of  Denver,  Colorado,  presents  another  illustration  of  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  seem  difficult  to  teach  young  people 
a  respect  for  law  and  order.  Yoimg  people  who  have 
come  before  his  court  and  have  felt  deeply  the  force  of 
justice  at  work  in  society  have  gone  back  into  the  world 
and  have  become  helpful  and  worthy  citizens  of  the 
commimity. 

The  history  of  the  moral  development  of  a  people  pre- 
sents abimdant  evidence  to  show  how  quickly  society  cor- 
rects an  evil  when  it  is  determined  that  such  an  evil  must 
cease.     Duelling  in  the  South  is  a  conspicuous  example- 

Moreover,  many  young  men  and  yoimg  women  whose 
reputation  in  youth  for  lawlessness  was  positively  bad, 
and  who  never  came  tmder  the  influence  of  any  definite 
instruction,  soon  by  their  own  reasoning,  it  seems,  ceased 
to  be  lawless  and  have  become  worthy  citizens.  In  fact, 
so  little  has  been  done  in  a  definite  way  to  teach  the  youth 
respect  for  the  laws  of  society  in  our  democracy  that  the 
wonder  is  that  the  mob  spirit  is  not  greater  than  it  is  and 
that  growing  people  have  as  much  respect  for  law  and 
order  as  they  do  have.  Perhaps  the  explanation  of  this 
is  fotmd  in  the  influence  of  the  church,  which  is  the  one 
institution  that  definitely  aims  to  make  men  and  women 
better  citizens. 

The  duty  of  the  school.  Unquestionably  the  school 
has  been  negligent  at  this  point.    Teachers  have  doubt- 


THE  BASIS  OF   GOOD   CITIZENSHIP  159 

less  been  misled  by  the  belief  that  because  all  children 
were  obedient  in  school  they  would  be  obedient  to  the 
laws  of  society  when  they  were  transferred  from  school  to 
society.  Observation,  however,  would  lead  one  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  youth,  as  a  mle,  readily  habituates 
himself  to  the  ways  and  needs  of  the  social  group  of  which 
he  becomes  a  member.  Therefore,  when  the  youth  leaves 
school  and  passes  into  a  social  group  where  parents  or 
other  associates  talk  of  taking  the  laws  into  their  own 
hands,  where  lawlessness  of  young  people  is  winked  at> 
where  the  miscarriage  of  justice  is  too  real  to  pass  unno- 
ticed, where  one  class  is  permitted  to  break  the  law  with 
impunity  and  another  class  is  held  to  a  strict  account- 
ability even  for  the  smallest  infractions  of  the  social 
rule  —  where  these  conditions  exist  in  society,  the  habit 
of  obedience  acquired  in  school  is  a  small  guaranty, 
indeed,  that  these  same  habits  will  be  carried  over  into  a 
different  society. 

It  is  the  duty,  therefore,  of  the  school  to  reach  society. 
The  school  may  do  this  in  two  ways:  (i)  by  attempting  in 
a  general  way  to  change  social  habits  by  working  in  the 
community  in  conjunction  with  the  church,  the  home,  and 
the  agencies  that  seek  to  better  the  race;  and  (2)  by  follow- 
ing the  students  into  society,  by  keeping  in  touch  with 
them  after  they  leave  school,  and  by  encouraging  them 
to  keep  alive  the  ideals  that  they  upheld  while  in  school. 
Our  educational  institutions  have  done  too  little  of  this 
follow-up  work.  But  if  they  are  to  help  make  our  society 
here  in  America  a  safe  place  for  democracy,  much  more 
of  this  follow-up  work  must  be  done. 

How  the  school  may  give  instruction  in  this  respect  will 
be  treated  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR 
LAW  AND  ORDER 

How  to  Return  to  a  True  Democracy 

Manjr  causes  have  contributed  no  doubt  to  bring  about  this 
decline  in  respect  and  reverence  for  authority  and  law.  The  weak- 
ening of  religious  faith,  the  loosening  of  the  bonds  of  parental  con- 
trol, the  absence  of  real  discipline  from  school  life,  have  all  been  at 
work  to  undermine  the  fotmdations  of  respect  and  reverence.  We 
shall  never  get  back  to  a  true  democracy,  however,  imtil  the  majesty 
of  the  law  excites  reverence  and  respect  on  its  own  account;  until 
the  family  bond  is  drawn  closer  and  tighter,  and  tmtil  children  honor 
their  parents  as  they  did  of  old;  and  imtil  the  school  understands 
that  abdication  of  authority  is  not  a  solution  for  the  difficulties  of 
discipline. 

— Nicholas  Murhay  Butler 

Is  it  not  clear,  then,  that  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  public  school 
is  to  make  its  charges  intelligent  concerning  these  questions  that 
most  vitally  concern  our  community  welfare?  And  is  it  not  also 
clear  that  they  should  learn  to  apply  the  knowledge  of  cooperative 
social  betterment  imperatively  demanded  for  their  daily  lives? 
....  Instead  of  insisting  upon  the  deepening  of  our  academic 
ruts,  the  school  must  stimulate  the  public  inteUigence,  inadcate 
aggressive  public  righteousness,  and  exalt  conscientious  public 
service. 

— William  D.  Lewis 

Make   pupils   acting  members   of    the    government. 

Thomas  Jefferson's  principle  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all 
poHtical  institutions  to  make  "every  citizen  an  acting 
member  of  the  government"  should  be  applied  to  the 
school.  This  subject  has  been  discussed  at  length  in 
chapters  xi  and  xii.  This  much,  however,  should  be  said 
here:  The  obedience  of  pupils  in  school  is  more  or  less 
obedience  to  autocratic  power.  They  are  not  bred  to 
local  self-government,  as  a  rule.    But  they  should  not 

i6o 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND  ORDER      i6i 

only  be  trained  to  aid  in  making  and  in  executing  at  least 
in  part  the  rules  that  are  to  govern,  but  as  soon  as  possible 
they  should  be  given  practice  in  formal  parliamentary 
procedure. 

The  importance  of  such  practices  in  school  cannot 
be  emphasized  too  strongly.  Even  before  the  child  has 
reached  the  stage  when  it  can  enter  inteUigently  into 
these  larger  organized  activities,  this  respect  for  the  rule 
of  lawmaking  bodies,  including  the  home  and  the  school, 
should  be  emphasized. 

As  the  race  has  passed  from  individual  or  family  con- 
trol, which  is  largely  autocratic,  to  the  clan,  the  state, 
and  the  nation,  so  the  child  passes  from  the  autocracy 
of  the  home  to  a  more  democratic  domestic  life.  This 
broadens  into  a  community  Hfe  and  finally  widens  into 
a  patriotism  that  is  nation-wide. 

Proper  use  of  the  textbook.  Respect  for  law  and 
order  in  a  democracy  is  so  essential  that  it  should  be  the 
aim  of  much  of  the  classroom  instruction. 

History  especially  lends  itself  to  this  kind  of  instruc- 
tion. How  mankind  has  been  governed  in  the  past, 
how  the  struggle  for  representative  government  began 
early,  how  man  has  fought  desperately  to  make  it  sup- 
plant autocratic  government,  how  the  World  War  was 
a  continuation  of  the  struggle,  and  how  the  greatest 
tragedy  the  world  has  known  was  a  conflict  of  the  two 
ideas  in  government  are  topics  that  should  not  escape 
the  teacher. 

The  world  has  been  moving  slowly  upward  from  primi- 
tive days  when  man  ruled  by  the  club  or  the  gun,  to 
the  more  enlightened  days  when  law  has  begun  to  take 
the  place  of  physical  force  as  the  controlling  factor  in  the 
conduct  of  man. 


i62  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Beginning  with  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  earliest 
of  our  body  of  laws,  and  coming  on  down  through  the 
Roman  age  when  law  was  given  a  wider  significance  in  the 
conduct  of  men,  the  teacher  may  impress  upon  the 
students  the  importance  of  law  as  a  rule  of  society. 

The  Magna  Charta,  the  Bill  of  Rights,  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  and  the  federal  Constitution  are  liberty 
documents  that  stand  as  guaranties  of  the  rule  of  right. 

Teachers,  therefore,  should  have  this  aim  in  teaching 
history:  to  lead  the  pupils  to  an  understanding  of  how 
the  world  has  been  moving  from  tyranny  toward  freedom 
and  of  the  struggles  of  the  race  in  order  to  win  a  rule  of 
right  and  justice.  How  man  has  learned  to  cooperate 
with  his  fellow  men  is  the  outstanding  fact  of  the  ages. 
Cooperation  is  a  sign  of  the  spirit  of  democracy  at  work 
— cooperation  in  making  and  executing  laws,  cooperation 
through  taxation  in  supporting  political  institutions  for 
the  benefit  of  all,  cooperation  through  voluntary  con- 
tributions in  supporting  religious  and  charitable  and 
benevolent  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  all,  and  cooper- 
ation in  industrial  institutions  for  the  welfare  of  all. 
The  teachers  who  miss  this  aim  in  instructing  children 
in  history  miss  a  great  aim.  But  those  who  keep  it 
in  mind  will  find  that  the  values  of  honesty,  truthfulness, 
industry,  justice,  wisdom,  and  good  will,  as  well  as  the 
other  social  virtues,  will  begin  to  appear  in  striking 
contrast  to  their  corresponding  vices. 

Civics,  likewise,  lends  itself  to  this  aim  in  teaching 
pupils  to  have  regard  for  law  and  order — how  individu- 
als in  society  cooperate  to  provide  schools,  water,  health, 
roads,  streets,  protection  of  life  and  property,  and  even 
the  conveniences  of  life,  and  how  lawlessness  or  a  failure 
to   cooperate    may    increase    ignorance,   inconvenience, 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND  ORDER      163 

disease,  and  much  distress  among  the  people — these  sub- 
jects offer  opportunities  for  instruction  in  law  and  order. 

Moreover,  at  every  cotmty  seat  are  found  the  court- 
house, the  judge,  the  jiuy,  the  sheriff,  and  other  officials 
whose  business  it  is  to  preserve  law  and  order  and  to 
provide  for  the  well-being  of  society.  How  are  these 
officers  elected?  What  are  their  duties?  How  can 
individuals  cooperate  with  them  in  making  a  better 
society? 

Biography  also  offers  valuable  material  for  giving 
instruction  in  law  and  order.  The  examples  of  great 
men  furnish  a  standard  for  judging  conduct.  Great  men 
seek  to  exalt  the  rule  of  right  above  the  rule  of  might. 
A  certain  governor  of  one  of  the  southern  states  achieved 
national  distinction  for  the  heroic  manner  in  which  he 
quelled  a  mob  and  prevented  a  lynching.  The  story  of 
such  acts  as  this  should  be  told,  for  the  heroism  of  the 
governor  will  rise  higher  than  the  courage  of  the  mob 
leaders  and  give  the  youth  a  standard  by  which  to  judge 
conduct.  The  teacher  should  seek  such  stories  in  the 
lives  of  oiu*  great  men,  both  dead  and  living,  and  present 
them  to  the  children  in  school. 

There  have  been  great  schoolmasters  who  became 
famous  because  of  their  efforts  to  make  their  pupils  feel 
the  necessity  of  ctdtivating  respect  for  law  and  order. 

Two  men  who  were  schoolmates  in  their  boyhood  days 
met  one  day  for  the  first  time  after  a  score  of  years  in 
one  of  the  hotels  of  Washington.  Naturally,  their  con- 
versation soon  turned  to  their  early  home  life,  their 
boyhood  associates,  and  their  school  days.  They  spoke 
affectionately  of  the  old  schoolmaster  who  taught  them 
for  so  many  years  in  the  home  commimity  but  who  had 
long  since  passed  away,  unknown  to  fortune  and  to  fame. 


i64  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY      ' 

"What  do  you  recollect  most  pleasantly  of  all  his 
instructions?"  one  asked. 

Without  hesitating  or  seeming  to  attempt  to  recall  any 
particular  characteristic  of  his  instructor,  the  other  replied : 

"His  morning  lectures  just  after  prayer  on  public 
questions,  and  especially  on  the  rights  and  duties  of  a 
citizen." 

" I  had  the  same  idea  in  mind,"  the  first  agreed.  "  My 
respect  for  law  and  order  was  formed  by  him." 

The  same  testimony  is  given  of  Thomas  Arnold, 
who  studied  Roman  law  and  Blackstone  in  order  that 
he  might  guide  the  students  of  Rugby  toward  better 
citizenship. 

When  he  thought  of  the  social  evils  of  the  country,  it  awakened 
a  corresponding  desire  to  check  the  thoughtless  waste  and  selfishness 
of  school  boys;  a  corresponding  sense  of  the  aggravation  of  those 
evils  by  the  insolence  and  want  of  sympathy  too  frequently  shown 
by  the  children  of  the  wealthier  classes  towards  the  lower  orders;  a 
corresponding  desire  that  they  should  there  imbibe  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  reverence  for  law  and  regard  for  the  poor  which  the  spirit 
of  the  age  seemed  to  him  so  Uttle  to  encourage.^ 

The  old-time  schoolmasters  who  Uve  to-day  so  affec- 
tionately in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  men  who  are 
carrying  the  burden  of  the  nation  and  striving  to  keep 
its  ideals  clear  were  the  embodiment  of  law  and  justice. 
And  their  masterfiil  manner  in  presenting  truth  and  the 
simple  but  fundamental  rule  of  life  made  them  builders 
of  the  nation.  The  great  schoolmaster  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary period  not  only  was  a  factor  in  training  men  for 
citizenship,  but  he  was  called  into  the  councils  of  the 
nation  to  aid  in  shaping  the  state  and  federal  constitutions. 

Respect  for  the  Flag.  American  schools  in  the  past 
have  been  very  negligent  in  teaching  respect  for  or  the 

^Stanley's  Thomas  Arnold. 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND  ORDER      165 

use  of  the  American  Flag.    But  why  should  this  respect 
for  a  nation's  flag  be  taught? 

Flags  sjrmbolize  the  noble  aspirations  and  glorious  achievement 
of  the  human  race;  they  epitomize  the  romance  of  history;  they 
incarnate  the  chivalry  of  the  ages. 

Their  origin  is  divinity  itself;  for  when  at  the  beginning  of  recorded 
time,  Jehovah  made  a  covenant  with  man,  promising  that  never 
again  would  He  send  the  waters  to  cover  the  face  of  the  earth  and 
destroy  all  flesh,  He  unfurled  the  first  flag — the  multihued  banner 
of  the  rainbow — which  He  set  in  the  clouds  as  a  symbol  of  security 
and  an  assurance  to  all  future  generations  of  His  watchful  care. 

And  since  that  day  man  has,  in  his  finite  way,  employed  his  earthly 
banners  as  emblems  of  faith,  of  hope,  and  of  high  resolve. 

Around  the  bits  of  varicolored  bunting  which  the  people  of  each 
land  nominate  as  a  national  flag,  there  cluster  thoughts  of  loyalty, 
of  patriotism,  and  of  personal  sacrifice  which  have  enabled  the  world 
to  move  forward,  from  the  days  when  each  individual  struggled  for 
himself  alone,  like  other  wild  animals  of  plain  and  motmtain  side, 
until,  through  community  of  interests  and  unity  of  efifort,  mankind 
has  been  enabled  to  rear  the  splendid  structure  of  twentieth  century 
civilization.1 

What  is  the  history  of  the  American  Flag?  Any 
good  encyclopedia  contains  the  story.  What  has  it 
stood  for  in  history?  Its  answer  is  read  in  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  American  people  ever3n;yhere.  Teachers 
shotdd  read  the  address  of  President  Wilson  on  "Flag 
Day"  and  of  Secretary  Franklin  K.  Lane  on  "The 
Making  of  the  Flag." 

It  should  be  the  ideal  of  the  school  to  fly  a  clean  flag 
over  a  clean  school.  As  the  people  of  the  nation  should 
do  nothing  unworthy  of  the  best  traditions  of  the  Flag, 
so  the  school  should  do  nothing  that  would  bring  reproach 
upon  it. 

Not  only  should  the  teacher  know  the  correct  method 
of  displaying  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  but  he  should  instruct 

» Gilbert  Grosvenor,  National  Geographic  Magazine,  October,  I9i7» 


1 66       EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

both  the  pupils  and  the  people  of  the  community  in  the 
proper  use  and  care  of  the  flag.  (See  Part  IV,  pages 
254-256,  for  directions.) 

Court  procedure  as  an  aid  in  teaching  respect  for  law. 
A  study  of  cotirt  procedure  of  the  past  decade  will  dis- 
close the  facts  that  the  public  conscience  has  been 
aroused  and  that  the  number  of  mob  leaders  haled  before 
the  courts  and  convicted  of  crimes  against  law  and  order 
has  greatly  increased. 

Such  knowledge  should  form  a  part  of  school  instruc- 
tion. The  time  to  build  up  an  inhibiting  force  in  the  mind 
of  an  individual  is  when  the  passions  are  calm  and  the 
spirit  is  in  a  state  to  receive  instruction.  Week  after 
week  and  year  after  year  students  should  be  told  what 
society  expects  of  every  citizen,  and  how  heavily  the 
hand  of  the  law  falls  upon  the  offender,  and  what  great 
injury  is  done  to  society  as  a  result  of  mob  violence  and 
individual  lawlessness. 

The  President's  message  on  the  subject  should  be  hung 
in  the  schoolroom,  and  should  be  made  a  part  of  the 
school  creed.  At  every  meeting  of  parents  it  should  be 
re-read,  and  talks  on  law  and  order  should  be  given 
periodically. 

Moreover,  the  court  records  show  what  crimes  are 
committed  in  a  community.  How  many  teachers  know 
the  most  common  offenses  against  society  that  come 
before  the  courts? 

The  law  of  the  land  as  an  aid  in  teaching  respect  for 
law.  In  olden  times  it  was  the  purpose  of  kings  and 
tyrants  to  keep  the  people  in  ignorance  of  the  law  in  order 
that  they  might  tjo-annize  over  them.  The  world  fought 
for  centuries  to  correct  this  evil,  and  to-day  ignorance 
of  the  law  is  no  longer  an  excuse  for  a  violation  of  the 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND  ORDER      167 

law.  Not  only  are  the  laws  published,  but  the  records 
of  the  court  are  open  for  inspection  in  order  that  all 
citizens  may  know  what  is  an  offense  against  society 
and  how  offenders  are  treated.  The  court  records  show 
what  crimes  and  misdemeanors  adults  are  guilty  of  and 
how  society  is  trying  to  protect  itself  against  them. 
Moreover,  these  same  records  show  that  children  as  well 
as  adiilts  are  haled  before  the  covtrts  for  breaking  the 
laws  of  society. 

The  teachers  of  every  school  should  study  the  courts  — 
the  magistrate's  court,  the  recorder's  court,  and  the 
Superior  Court.  How  is  a  case  tried?  How  is  a  man 
tried  for  an  offense?  What  are  the  offenses  that  usually 
come  before  the  courts?  These  are  questions  that  every 
teacher  can  learn  readily. 

Whenever  teachers  feel  that  they  are  not  competent 
to  discuss  these  evils  and  the  methods  of  correcting  them, 
a  magistrate,  or  lawyer,  or  judge,  or  some  other  public 
citizen  might  be  called  upon  once  a  week  or  oftener  to 
lecture  on  some  phase  of  the  law  that  comes  within  the 
experience  of  pupils. 

The  great  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  make  the  child 
fit  to  enjoy  the  freedom  guaranteed  to  him  by  a  democ- 
racy. The  rights  and  duties,  therefore,  of  an  American 
citizen  should  be  taught  in  every  school,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  a  child  should  parallel  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
government  of  an  American  citizen,  for  the  basis  of  all 
good  citizenship  is  respect  for  law  and  order. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHING   RESPECT  FOR 
LAW  AND  ORDER— Continued 

Importance  of  Teaching  Law  and  Order 

Children  may  be  made  to  understand  that  school  laws  are  the 
expression  of  careful  wisdom.  This  understanding  is  impeded  in 
some  cases  by  conviction  based  on  experience  that  home  laws  often 
represent  impulse  or  impatience  or  a  faUiu-e  to  appreciate  the  con- 
ditions of  child  life.  But  even  here  the  reasonableness  of  the  aca- 
demic regulations  may  be  made  clear 

The  importance  of  the  whole  matter  is  evidenced  by  the  continual 

complaint  of  the  ineffectiveness  in  teaching  respect  for  law 

Children  are  conscious  only  of  the  restraint  of  it.  They  conse- 
quently hate  it  and  on  every  convenient  occasion  react  from  it. 
They  are  at  war  with  the  teacher  in  the  school,  and  they  continue 
to  be  at  war  with  the  policeman  when  they  get  out  of  school 

The  essence  of  sound  poUtical  life  is  in  regard  for  law  as  a  common 
possession.  It  is  our  law,  made  for  us  by  men  whom  we  have 
chosen  for  that  purpose,  enforced  by  men  in  tmif orm  whose  salaries 
are  paid  by  us  in  the  form  of  taxes.  It  is  a  regulation  agreed  upon 
by  us  all  as  the  best  method  for  procuring  order  and  efficiency  in 
the  living  of  our  life. 

— E.  Hershey  Sneath  and  George  Hodges, 
Moral  Training  in  the  School  and  Home 

Parallel  between  law  of  the  land  and  law  of  the  school. 

Teachers  are  often  too  shortsighted  in  their  appUcation 
of  the  rules  governing  the  school.  This  important 
subject  is  viewed  frequently  from  too  narrow  a  view- 
point. As  a  result,  pupils,  as  a  rule,  see  only  obedience 
to  autocratic  power.  However,  there  are  very  few 
important  rules  in  school  that  do  not  have  their  parallel 
in  the  laws  of  the  state  and  the  nation — laws  that  the 
patrons  of  the  school  helped  to  make  or  have  agreed  to 
support. 

168 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND^ORDER      169 

The  following  outline,  therefore,  may  serve  as  a  guide 
to  teachers  in  their  efforts  to  create  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  a  respect  for  law  and  order,  and  also  as  topics 
for  discussion  by  the  pupils  or  by  visitors  who  may  be 
invited  to  discuss  some  of  the  fundamental  rules  of 
society  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupils. 

1.  Carelessness  aftd  negligence.  It  is  said  that  in  Amer- 
ica the  cost  to  society  in  one  year  (1900)  from  carelessness 
and  negligence  amounted  to  over  six  hundred  million 
dollars.  The  law  holds  a  man  responsible  for  the  damages 
if  his  neighbor  or  a  stranger  or  an  employee  is  injured 
because  of  his  carelessness  or  negligence.  Such  acts, 
therefore,  must  be  very  nimierous,  since  the  total  cost 
in  one  year  is  so  great.  How  many  acts  under  this  head 
can  the  teacher  and  pupils  name? 

The  negligence  or  carelessness  of  pupils  in  school  or 
at  home  is  a  source  of  constant  annoyance  and  a  hin- 
drance to  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  others.  Com- 
pare such  negligence  or  carelessness  with  that  of  a  man 
who  is  compelled  to  make  good  the  damages  resulting 
therefrom. 

2.  The  misuse  of  other  people's  money.  A  bonding 
company  in  19 17  compiled  reports  of  embezzlement  for 
that  year.  In  the  main  its  figures  covered  cases  that 
involved  a  loss  to  bonding  companies  alone.  The  total 
was  over  thirty  million  dollars.  The  true  total  would 
no  doubt  be  much  larger,  since  a  good  many  embezzle- 
ments occur  of  which  bonding  companies  never  hear. 

This  is  one  evidence  that  many  people  are  not  reliable 
when  intrusted  with  other  people's  money.  The  law  is 
especially  severe  against  those  who  fail  either  through 
dishonesty  or  through  weakness  although  they  did  not 
intend  to  do  wrong.    What  acts  constitute  embezzlement  ? 

12 


I70  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Moreover,  if  a  man  intrusts  a  package  to  an  express 
company,  or  to  any  other  company  or  party  doing  a  busi- 
ness for  the  public,  or  to  a  friend  to  be  delivered  or 
repaired,  the  law  holds  the  company  or  individual  respon- 
sible for  the  safe  delivery  of  such  an  article.  Good  faith 
and  responsibility  are  essential  to  freedom  and  progress. 

The  need  of  exercising  extreme  care  in  handling  other 
people's  money  or  property  should  be  emphasized  in 
school.  The  growth  of  school  banks  and  the  development 
of  school  clubs  or  societies  in  which  fees  are  exacted  from 
the  members  offer  opportunities  for  discussion  of  this 
subject,  and  for  impressing  upon  the  pupils  the  need  of 
exercising  great  care.  How  many  schools  could  present 
evidences  of  bad  management  of  school  activities  or  school 
publications  that  would  be  criminal  if  the  parties  in 
charge  of  the  business  were  adults? 

3.  Using  one's  name  or  word  falsely.  Forging  checks  or 
some  name  other  than  that  of  the  owner  to  a  document, 
passing  worthless  checks,  securing  property  or  other 
advantage  through  false  pretenses,  disposing  of  mort- 
gaged property  or  property  that  belongs  to  others — 
these  and  a  nimiber  of  other  acts  to  which  people  resort 
to  secure  unjustly  that  which  rightfully  belongs  to  others 
are  crimes  against  society. 

This  offense  against  society  may  be  compared  with 
acts  of  pupils  in  signing  their  names  to  work  done  for 
them  by  parents  or  companions,  in  copying  from  other, 
students  or  other  sources  and  offering  such  work  as  their 
own,  and  in  other  acts  by  which  pupils  attempt  to  secure 
advantage  without  giving  honest  work. 

4.  Failure  to  keep  a  contract.  An  injury  that  results 
from  the  failure  of  an  individual  to  keep  his  promise 
whether  made  orally  or  in  writing  is  a  violation  of  a 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW  AND  ORDER      171 

contract,  and  the  court  holds  the  violator  responsible.  It 
is  unfortunately  true  that  a  man's  word  is  not  always  his 
bond.  In  the  business  world  a  man's  word  is  frequently 
not  as  good  security  as  his  horse  or  his  cow  or  his  hog, 
because  his  word  is  not  a  guaranty  that  his  promise  will 
be  kept,  and  our  whole  mortgage  system  has  been  built 
up  to  make  men  keep  their  word  in  business. 

Most  people  are  careless  about  keeping  engagements. 
Those  who  lightly  regard  engagements  are  held  to  a  strict 
accountability  by  the  courts  wherever  the  offended  can 
show  damage.  The  youth  should  be  taught  to  value 
other  people's  time,  which  to  busy  men  and  women  is 
more  valuable  than  property.  To  take  up  a  man's  time 
by  keeping  him  waiting  beyond  the  limit  of  the  agreement 
is  wrong.  It  violates  the  very  basis  of  law  and  order.  It 
disturbs  the  energy  and  character  of  people  and  sows 
discord  in  the  world. 

How  much  damage  results  to  pupils,  to  the  school,  and 
to  people  in  general  because  of  this  lack  of  regard  for 
punctuality  and  this  failure  to  keep  one's  promise  or 
engagement !  Students  should  be  held  to  a  strict  account- 
ability for  failures  in  this  respect,  and,  above  all,  teachers 
should  set  the  example  in  being  punctual  and  in  keeping 
their  promises. 

5.  Nuisances.  Any  citizen  can  become  a  nuisance  or 
maintain  a  nuisance  in  a  community  for  which  he  may 
be  held  responsible,  such  as  violating  the  sanitary  regu- 
lations, reckless  driving,  keeping  immoral  or  disorderly 
places,  disorderly  conduct,  loud  and  continued  use  of 
profanity  or  vulgarity  in  public,  or  keeping  animals  that 
disturb  the  community  or  endanger  its  health.  What 
conduct  of  students  may  cause  them  to  be  classed  as 
nuisances? 


172  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

6.  Injury  to  other  people's  property.  No  man  may  with 
impunity  damage  another's  house  or  trees  or  animals  or 
property  of  any  kind,  or  permit  his  children  or  cattle  or 
other  animals  to  injure  the  property  of  others,  without 
being  held  responsible  for  the  act.  Moreover,  all  injury 
to  parks  and  playgrounds  or  public  buildings,  either  by 
destruction  or  by  defacement  of  the  property,  is  punish- 
able by  fines  and  imprisonment.  In  addition,  no  one  is 
allowed  to  injure  his  own  property  in  such  a  way  as  to 
diminish  the  value  of  property  in  a  community,  such  as 
burning  his  own  house  or  killing  his  own  horse.  What 
injury  to  property  is  done  by  students  that  might  be 
classed  as  a  misdemeanor? 

Injury  to  property  is  closely  akin  to  the  taking  of 
others'  property,  which  is  called  larceny,  and  every 
student  should  know  and  feel  the  importance  of  respecting 
other  people's  property. 

7.  Injury  to  persons  or  to  one's  good  name  and  reputation. 
The  law  holds  a  man  responsible  for  injury  to  another's 
body  or  to  his  feelings  or  to  his  good  name  and  reputation, 
and  those  who  are  guilty  of  causing  injury  to  one's  person 
or  slandering  his  good  name  and  reputation  may  be 
severely  punished.  The  greatest  crime  against  an  indi- 
vidual is  to  destroy  his  body  or  murder  him.  Carrying 
concealed  weapons,  such  as  pistols,  dirks,  or  razors,  is  an 
evidence  that  the  individual  intends  to  do  injury  to 
persons;  therefore  carrying  concealed  weapons  is  a  viola- 
tion of  the  law.  What  acts  of  pupils  might  be  classed 
as  crimes  or  misdemeanors  under  the  law? 

8.  Vagrancy  or  lack  of  visible  means  of  support.  Those 
who  do  not  work  and  who  live  by  begging  or  stealing  or 
other  questionable  means  are  considered  enemies  to 
society.    Hence   we   have   workhouses   in   which   such 


TEACHING  RESPECT  FOR  LAW   AND   ORDER      173 

people  may  be  confined  and  made  to  work.  The  state 
expects  everyone  to  have  an  honest  vocation  and  to  earn 
his  own  Hving  by  fair  and  virtuous  means.  That  is  why 
gambhng  and  cheating  are  offenses  against  the  law. 
What  then  is  the  duty  of  the  school  in  its  relation  to  the 
occupations  of  a  community? 

9.  Assault  and  battery.  Fighting  or  causing  a  brawl 
between  people  is  an  offense.  This  may  be  done  by  mak- 
ing threats,  or  by  using  language  that  arouses  one's  wrath 
or  excites  to  anger.  Those  who  are  responsible  for 
starting  a  fight  are  held  to  account  for  the  act,  not  those 
who  defend  themselves;  for  the  law  accords  a  man  the 
right  to  protect  or  defend  himself  against  violence  and 
injury.  Do  teachers  observe  the  same  rule  in  regard  to 
punishing  children  for  fighting? 

10.  Duties  toward  the  home.  The  law  says  that  a  man's 
home  is  his  castle.  The  state,  therefore,  seeks  in  a  number 
of  ways  to  protect  men  and  women  in  the  enjoyment  of 
their  homes,  and  those  who  in  any  manner  disturb  the 
peace  or  purity  of  the  home  of  another  may  be  guilty  of 
the  most  serious  offense  against  the  state.  In  a  certain 
institution  of  one  of  the  southern  states,  established  for 
the  correction  of  youthful  criminals,  every  child  either 
comes  from  no  home  or  from  one  that  had  become  so 
demoralized  that  it  was  worse  than  no  home.  The 
safety  of  a  nation,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  purity 
and  strength  of  the  home;  hence  the  state  holds  an  indi- 
vidual strictly  to  account  for  aiding  in  disrupting  a  home. 

11.  Duties  to  the  state.  There  are  a  nimiber  of  laws 
that  might  be  classed  under  the  head  of  duties  to  the 
state,  such  as  listing  and  paying  taxes,  and  aiding  officers 
in  enforcing  law  and  in  performing  their  duties.  Those 
who  interfere  with  a  policeman  or  postman  or  fireman 


174  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

or  judge  are  violating  the  law.  Moreover,  it  is  an  offense 
for  citizens  to  refuse  to  aid  the  officers  in  enforcing  law 
and  order.  In  how  many  ways  may  pupils  aid  the  officers 
of  the  community? 

These  are  some  of  the  most  important  topics  that  the 
high  school  could  well  afford  to  develop.  There  is  no 
more  reason  why  a  knowledge  of  the  law  should  be  pro- 
fessionalized and  designed  for  only  the  specially  initiated 
than  why  any  other  important  subject  dealing  with 
social  relationships  should  be  professionalized.  It  has 
been  the  writer's  experience  that,  wherever  these  topics 
have  been  discussed  among  teachers  and  pupils,  both 
were  greatly  interested  in  them  and  were  stimulated  to 
ask  pertinent  questions  that  showed  how  quickly  the 
young  mind  felt  the  need  of  seeking  further  knowledge 
of  a  practical  sort. 


CHAPTER  XX 

A  QUICKENED  MORAL  SENSE  NECESSARY  TO 
GOOD  CITIZENSHIP 

The  Importance  of  Moral  Instruction 

The  foundations  of  our  national  policy  will  be  laid  in  the  pure 
and  immutable  principles  of  private  morality.  There  exists  in  the 
course  of  nature  an  indissoluble  union  between  virtue  and  happiness, 
between  duty  and  advantage,  between  honest  policy  and  public 

felicity The  propitious  smiles  of  heaven  can  never  be 

expected  on  a  union  (or  government)  that  disregards  the  eternal 
rules  of  order  and  right,  which  heaven  itself  has  ordained. 

— George  Washington's  Farewell  Address 

The  evidence  shows  that  in  all  the  countries  from  which  we  have 
received  reports  those  who  have  special  knowledge  of  social  needs 
regard  the  moral  influence  which  may  be  exerted  by  the  schools  as 
being  of  primary  importance  to  national  well-being.  The  question 
of  moral  education  is  the  heart  of  the  modem  educational  problem. 
If  this  is  neglected,  education  is  a  peril. 

— M.  E.  Sadler,  Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  School 

The  hardest  struggles  and  greatest  victories  still  ahead  of  the 
individual  lie  in  the  field  of  moral  control  over  the  self.  He  has 
not  yet  fully  realized  in  experience  that  it  is  better  to  rule  the 
spirit  than  to  take  the  city,  and  that  there  is  real  victory  in  going 
the  second  mile  with  him  who  compels  us  to  go  one  mile. 

One  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  greatest  weakness  in  our  present 
civilization  is  at  the  point  of  moral  control.  Nor  can  there  be 
found  any  other  weakness  so  fatal  to  the  stability  and  success  of  a 
democracy.  No  perfection  of  the  machinery  of  government,  no 
excellence  of  programme  on  the  part  of  the  social  institutions,  no 
amount  of  increase  in  national  resources  and  wealth,  and  no  degree 
of  intellectual  culture  and  development  on  the  part  of  a  people  can 
result  in  permanent  welfare  and  stable  progress  if  the  moral  element 
is  lacking.  It  becomes  one  of  the  first  concerns  of  education,  there- 
fore, to  develop  in  the  individual  a  sense  for  moral  values,  and  to 
give  him  the  fullest  possible  control  over  the  moral  aspects  of  his 
experience.    —George  H.  Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education 

A  lesson  from  the  war.  The  World  War  is  a  tragic 
example  of  the  evils  resulting  from  a  corrupted  or  deformed 

175 


176       EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

moral  sense.  The  civilized  world,  outside  of  the  Central 
Powers,  could  not  or  would  not  believe  that  such  bar- 
barous inhumanities,  such  gross  injustice,  and  such 
sickening  immoralities  as  those  that  accompanied  the 
German  armies  could  have  the  sanction  of  the  rulers  of 
an  enlightened  nation. 

The  moral  code  of  a  nation,  of  a  community,  of  a 
family,  may  be  so  low  as  to  place  the  people  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  so  dwarf  their  per- 
spective as  to  make  them  incapable  of  imderstanding  the 
acts  and  motives  of  a  people  who  have  developed  a  fine 
moral  sense  and  who  maintain  a  high  ethical  standard. 
Mr.  Vernon  Kellogg,  who  served  with  Mr.  Herbert  Hoover 
in  Belgium,  writing  of  the  Germans  in  Belgium,^  tells  the 
story  of  a  depraved  moral  sense  that  is  nothing  less  than 
a  spiritual  tragedy.  A  German  diplomat,  in  speaking  to 
him  of  the  attitude  of  Germany  to  other  nations,  said 
in  all  seriousness:  "Our  statesmen  do  not  understand 
your  statesmen;  our  diplomats  do  not  imderstand  the 
people  to  whom  we  send  them;  and  we  lose  by  it;  we  suffer 
by  it."  He  said  further  that  it  was  impossible  for  Ger- 
mans to  understand  why  Americans  and  others  hated 
them  because  they  blew  up  undefended  cities  and  killed 
innocent  women  and  children  when  they  were  deriving 
a  certain  military  advantage  from  the  acts.  But  perhaps 
the  strangest  mental  state  and  one  that  Americans  can 
least  imderstand  is  the  disappointment  of  the  Germans 
over  the  Belgians'  attitude  toward  them.  After  Belgium 
was  overpowered,  the  German  rulers  could  not  imderstand 
why  the  Belgians  would  not  recognize  the  Germans 
as  their  masters  and  cease  to  resist.  This  accounts 
to  some  extent,   it  seems,  for  the  rule  of  frightfulness 

^  "At  von  Bissing's  Headquarters,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  August,  1917* 


A  MORAL  SENSE  AND  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP      177 

instituted  in  order  to  overwhelm  the  mind  with  terror. 
But  this  is  another  evidence  that  a  man  with  a  low 
moral  sense  cannot  be  a  good  psychologist. 

We  know  that  an  individual  can  fall  so  low  that  his 
standard  of  living  is  a  peril  to  the  community  and  his 
acts  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  welfare  of  his  neighbors. 
But  not  until  this  war  came  did  we  suspect  that  an 
enlightened  nation  could  really  become  an  outlaw  in  the 
world  of  nations. 

Virtue  a  state  of  mind.  Virtue  is  a  state  of  mind.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  taught  in  the  same  way  as  arithmetic, 
spelling,  or  reading  is  taught,  and  those  who  expect  to 
bring  about  a  proper  state  of  mind  through  requiring 
children  to  memorize  moral  precepts  as  they  memorize 
other  forms  of  knowledge  will  be  disappointed.  This 
method  may  aid  the  teacher  in  giving  moral  instruction, 
but  it  in  itself  is  not  moral  instruction. 

In  training  teachers,  therefore,  and  in  fixing  standards 
of  qualification,  we  have  relied  too  much  upon  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge.  The  way  to  a  proper  will  or  a  proper 
state  of  mind  is  still  almost  a  closed  avenue  in  the  training 
of  teachers.  A  conventional  verbal  statement  divorced 
from  the  habit  of  mind  and  character  of  the  individual 
has  been  at  times  almost  the  sole  guide  in  fixing  the 
qualifications  of  teachers. 

However,  the  new  importance  given  to  personality  is 
an  evidence  that  not  the  whole  emphasis  is  placed  on 
scholarship  or  knowledge,  but  that  part  at  least  is  placed 
on  the  cardinal  virtues  or  morality.  Given  a  teacher  with 
the  right  personality  and  the  right  attitude  toward  life, 
all  other  acquirements  may  be  added. 

The  first  essential,  therefore,  is  to  secure  the  right 
mental  habits,  and  this  end  is  best  accomplished,  perhaps. 


178  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

by  the  setting  up  of  a  moral  standard  by  which  to  judge 
conduct.  How  high  is  it?  How  low  is  it?  What  is  it? 
A  good  illustration.  Perhaps  one  of  the  best  examples 
of  two  radically  different  standards  is  found  in  the  military 
orders  of  Lord  Kitchener  and  the  practices  of  the  German 
army.     Said  Lord  Kitchener,  in  a  letter  to  his  men: 

Be  invariably  courteous,  considerate,  and  kind.  Never  do  any- 
thing likely  to  injure  or  destroy  property  and  always  look  upon 
looting  as  a  disgraceful  act.  You  are  sure  to  meet  with  a  welcome 
and  be  trusted,  and  your  conduct  must  justify  that  welcome  and 
that  trust. 

Your  duty  cannot  be  done  unless  your  health  is  sound,  so  keep 
constantly  on  your  guard  against  excesses. 

In  this  experience  you  may  find  temptation  both  in  wine  and 
women.  You  must  entirely  resist  both  temptations,  and  while 
treating  all  women  with  perfect  courtesy,  you  should  avoid  any 
intimacy. 

The  horrors  of  German  ruthlessness  make  this  standard 
stand  out  in  striking  contrast,  and  it  is  the  contrast  that 
makes  the  standard  so  effective. 

The  American  standard.  Our  piu-pose  in  going  to  war 
was  an  evidence  of  a  high  moral  standard — a  standard 
that  the  Germans  could  not  understand.  The  same  stand- 
ard was  maintained  when  Cuba  was  freed  and  when  the 
American  army  aided  those  of  other  nations  in  putting 
down  the  Boxer  War  in  China.  No  conquest,  no  indem- 
nities, no  increased  material  power,  no  protection  of  a 
special  class,  were  desired,  but  the  one  aim  was  to  make 
the  world  a  safer  and  a  better  place  in  which  to  live. 
Such  was  the  purpose  of  America  in  entering  this  war. 

Our  soldiers  were  fighting  for  right  and  justice  not  only 
for  Americans,  but  for  people  everywhere,  and  the  nation 
should  still  educate  the  people  to  hate  the  acts  of  the 
Prussian  rulers  because  they  were  unjust.     This  American 


A  MORAL  SENSE  AND   GOOD   CITIZENSHIP      179 

standard,  therefore,  should  have  a  tremendous  effect  upon 
the  children  of  America  and  the  people  of  the  civilized 
world. 

The  schools,  moreover,  should  be  thoroughly  moral 
both  in  the  instruction  offered  in  them  and  in  the  tone  and 
standard  of  the  institution.  It  is  not  an  extreme  criticism 
to  say  that  the  schools  have  been  more  or  less  unmoral 
—  that  is,  since  religious  instruction  has  been  minimized, 
positive  moral  instruction  has  not  formed  a  vital  part  of 
the  school  work.  The  schools  must  follow  the  example 
of  the  nation  and  emphasize  a  definite  moral  standard 
not  only  in  the  conduct  of  the  pupils  in  the  playgrounds, 
but  in  the  emphasis  given  to  instruction  in  the  classroom; 
and  whatever  standard  of  ethics  is  adopted  by  the  school 
it  should  have  the  sanction  of  religion. 

The  American  standard  has  the  sanction  in  America  of 
all  religious  sects,  including  Protestants,  Catholics,  and 
Jews,  and  they  fought  zealously  and  cooperated  patri- 
otically to  make  this  standard  prevail  in  the  world.  The 
righteousness  of  this  standard  appealed  to  the  nations 
of  the  world  during  the  war,  and  they  have  a  right  to 
expect  the  people  of  America  to  maintain  as  high  a  stand- 
ard during  the  period  of  readjustment  following  the  war. 

One  question  therefore  for  every  American  citizen  to 
ask  is  this :  Am  I  guilty  of  any  of  the  acts  that  have  made 
the  Prussians  hateftd  in  the  sight  of  decent  men  and 
women?  One  question  for  each  school  to  ask  is:  What  is 
the  moral  standard  of  this  particular  institution? 

The  standard  of  the  church.  The  great  value  of  a 
standard  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  offers  a  gauge  by  which 
individuals  or  groups  of  individuals  may  measure  them- 
selves. It  is  not  the  formal  creed  that  gives  the  church  its 
moral  tone,  but  it  is  the  standard  of  life  as  set  by  Jesus. 


l8o  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

The  Sunday-school  instruction  and  the  weekly  and  semi- 
weekly  sermons  are  constantly  holding  up  to  the  individual 
this  one  standard  in  such  a  way  that  the  individual  must 
ask  the  question  and  answer  it  in  the  depths  of  his  own 
consciousness:  Is  my  life  in  harmony  with  the  life  and 
teachings  of  Jesus  ? 

The  morning  exercises  in  school  may  be  wholly  immoral. 
Reading  a  chapter  from  the  Bible  and  repeating  the  Lord's 
Prayer  or  some  other  formal  stereotyped  petition  may  be 
wholly  imreligious,  especially  if  these  exercises  are  held 
for  the  ptupose  of  avoiding  the  criticism  of  the  sectarian 
saints  of  the  community. 

Some  standard  of  excellence,  some  noble  deed,  some 
unselfish  act,  some  patriotic  service,  held  up  each  day,  will 
draw  the  lives  of  the  youth  toward  it. 

Most  people  know  that  when  adults  whose  habits  are 
supposed  to  be  fixed  go  into  strange  commimities  where 
they  may  move  about  incognito,  they  are  sometimes 
guilty  of  immoral  or  tmlawful  acts  that  they  would  never 
think  of  committing  when  in  the  presence  of  public 
opinion  at  home.  Why?  Because  the  social  standard 
is  so  constantly  held  up  in  the  home  community  that  the 
people  do  not  even  think  of  doing  an  unmoral  deed.  But 
in  a  strange  community  and  in  dealing  with  strangers, 
they  too  readily  forget  the  standard.  This  is  another 
evidence  of  the  power  of  public  opinion. 

The  chiu"ch  sets  a  high  standard,  one  surpassing  pub- 
lic opinion,  but  one  that  the  individual  may  carry  with 
him  while  traveling  incognito  or  in  the  presence  of  his 
neighbors. 

The  standard,  therefore,  that  has  the  most  far-reach- 
ing influence  is  that  which  calls  constantly  for  self- 
examination. 


A  MORAL  SENSE  AND  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP      i8i 

Illustration  of  a  Chinese  school.  A  certain  Chinese 
school  near  Shanghai  is  famous  for  its  good  order,  for  the 
neatness  of  the  students,  for  its  clean  and  attractive  sur- 
roundings, and  for  the  self-government  of  the  pupils. 
The  master  in  charge  was  asked  by  an  American  the  cause 
of  such  extraordinary  results.  Then  the  visitor  was  led 
to  a  large  mirror-door  near  the  entrance  to  the  study  hall, 
over  which  was  printed  a  list  of  questions.  The  master, 
pointing  to  the  questions,  said  that  every  student  before 
entering  the  study  hall  was  compelled  to  pause  before 
this  door,  inspect  himself  thoroughly,  and  ask  himself 
such  questions  as  these,  which  he  was  required  to  answer 
in  the  affirmative  before  entering  the  room: 

Am  I  clean? 

Are  my  buttons  sewed  on? 

Am  I  prepared  for  the  day's  work? 

Am  I  fit  to  take  a  place  with  my  companions,  etc.  ? 

Boy  Scout  laws  a  good  standard.  One  of  the  best 
agencies  in  moral  instruction  is  the  code  of  the  Boy 
Scouts.  It  fixes  the  standard  of  a  good  Scout.  Teachers 
would  do  well  to  use  these  laws  as  a  standard  for  the  boys 
of  the  school: 


1.  A  Scout 

2.  A  Scout 

3.  A  Scout 

4.  A  Scout 

5.  A  Scout 


6.  A  Scout  is  kind. 

7.  A  Scout  is  obedient. 

8.  A  Scout  is  cheerful. 


9.  A  Scout 

10.  A  Scout 

11.  A  Scout 

12.  A  Scout 


trustworthy, 
loyal, 
helpftd. 
friendly. 
;  courteous. 


is  thrifty, 
is  brave, 
is  clean, 
is  reverent. 


1 82       EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Before  he  becomes  a  Scout  the  boy  must  promise: 
"On my  honor  I  will  do  my  best  to  do  my  duty  to  God  and 
my  Country  and  to  obey  the  Scout  laws;  to  help  other 
people  at  all  times ;  and  to  keep  myself  physically  strong, 
mentally  awake,  and  morally  straight." 

Standard  fixed  for  the  soldiers.  The  teacher  has  much 
to  learn  from  the  methods  employed  by  the  nation  to 
maintain  a  high  moral  standard  for  the  soldiers.  The 
World  War  was  the  result  of  two  antagonistic  ideals,  two 
moral  standards  in  the  world,  and  the  outcome  will  de- 
termine not  only  national  boundary  lines,  but  also  which 
moral  force  shall  rule  the  world. 

The  moral  standard  of  the  soldiers  was  a  vital  matter 
from  two  standpoints  —  in  winning  the  war  and  in 
preserving  right  and  justice  in  the  world  after  the  war. 
The  nation,  therefore,  employed  every  possible  welfare 
agency  in  order  to  preserve  the  well-being  of  the  soldier 
— chaplains  from  religious  bodies,  the  Y.  M.C.A.,  the 
Y.W.C.A.,  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Salvation 
Army,  Jewish  moral  agencies,  army  and  navy  community 
workers,  playground  experts,  leaders  of  music,  theatrical 
agencies,  moving  pictures,  and  teachers  of  history  and 
other  subjects.  The  daily  regimen  of  the  soldier  helped 
to  stabilize  his  passionate  or  sentimental  nature  and  to 
utilize  his  leisure.  The  reports  from  the  camps  therefore 
show  that  soldiers  who  had  been  in  training  three  months 
were  as  a  rule  in  a  healthier  state  mentally  and  physically 
than  when  they  left  home. 

The  soldier  had  a  great  task  to  perform,  and  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  keep  himself  in  a  fit  condition. 
Hence  all  vicious  resorts,  such  as  saloons  and  gambling 
houses  and  houses  of  prostitution,  were  under  surveillance 
in  the  cities  near  which  camps  were  located,  and  soldiers 


A  MORAL  SENSE  AND  GOOD   CITIZENSHIP      183 

were  forbidden  to  enter  them.  If  they  insisted  after  they 
had  been  challenged,  the  officer  had  orders  to  shoot.  If 
such  drastic  measures  are  resorted  to  to  protect  soldiers 
in  training  for  service,  we  may  rightly  ask  the  question: 
Why  are  such  dens  of  vice  permitted  to  grow  up  in  a 
community? 

If  theatricals  and  moving  pictures  and  lectures  of  all 
kinds  are  strictly  censored  and  carefully  supervised  for 
the  soldiers,  why  should  society  as  a  whole  not  be  pro- 
tected from  the  bold  display  of  wanton  women  and  beastly 
men  parading  on  the  stage,  on  the  screen,  on  the  bill- 
boards, and  on  the  streets? 

The  soldier  was  adjusting  himself  to  a  Tiew  social  order, 
and  a  standard  fit  for  a  good  soldier  is  likewise  fit  for  a 
good  citizen  or  a  good  pupil  in  school. 

Erecting  a  standard  for  the  school.  Just  as  right  living 
should  accompany  making  a  living,  so  should  moral 
direction  accompany  all  classroom  instruction.  A  serious 
objection  may  be  raised  against  the  method  of  teaching 
morals  in  school  if  it  is  made  a  special  subject  and  set  at 
a  given  hour  and  labeled  moral  teaching.  Life  is  a  unit, 
and  the  poise,  the  tone,  and  the  character  of  an  individual 
are  formed  out  of  all  the  forces  at  work. 

Truthfulness,  fidelity,  consecration  to  duty,  justice, 
courage,  industry,  reverence,  beneficence,  clearness  of  vis- 
ion as  to  right  and  wrong,  honesty,  love,  faith,  charity, 
and  good  will  are  virtues  that  help  to  make  an  individual 
great.  How  are  they  combined  in  the  characters  studied 
in  school?  Which  predominates ?  They  are  foimd  in  the 
home,  the  school,  and  the  community,  and  the  child 
should  be  taught  to  find  them,  to  bring  examples  of  them 
to  school,  and  to  compare  individuals  with  the  highest 
standard  formed. 


i84  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

Every  school  can  do  this,  and  in  doing  such  work  the 
teacher  has  begun  real  moral  training.  Who  are  the  men 
who  stand  at  the  head  of  any  great  movement?  Who 
are  the  women  to  whom  the  public  turns  when  the  serv- 
ices of  a  great  woman  are  needed?  What  quaUties  do 
they  possess  that  make  them  acceptable  teachers  of  men 
and  women?  The  good  is  always  foimd  mixed  with  evil, 
and  yoimg  people  too  often  see  only  the  petty  vices  of 
the  great  men,  and  strive  to  copy  them  much  as  simple 
slaves  seem  to  copy  the  showy  acts  or  manners  of  their 
masters. 

How  then  may  teachers  give  moral  aim  to  the  work  in 
the  schoolroom? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  MORAL  AIM  IN  TEACHING 

Moral  Values  in  Education 

The  opinion  prevails  among  many  teachers  that  intellectual 
development  is  by  its  nature  separate  and  distinct  from  moral 
training.  Of  all  the  evils  in  our  schools  this  terrible  mistake  is  pro- 
ductive of  the  greatest.  The  powers  of  the  mind  determine  by  their 
limitations  all  human  action.  There  is  no  neutral  grotmd.  Every- 
thing done  has  a  moral  or  immoral  tendency Every  act 

of  the  teacher,  his  manner,  attitude,  character,  all  that  he  does  or 
says,  all  that  he  calls  upon  his  pupils  to  do  or  say,  develops  in 
a  degree  moral  or  immoral  tendencies.  No  teacher  should  say,  "I 
train  the  intellect,"  and  leave  moral  and  spiritual  training  to  others. 

—  Francis  W.  Parker,  Talks  on  Teaching 

So  far  as  I  can  ascertain  schools  of  the  olden  time  had  in  them  a 
large  amount  of  wholesome  ethical  training.  Schools  were  unsys- 
tematic then;  there  lay  no  examination  paper  ahead  of  them;  there 
was  time  for  pause  and  talk.  If  a  subject  arose  which  the  teacher 
deemed  important  for  his  pupils'  personal  life,  he  could  lead  them 
on  to  question  about  it,  so  far  as  he  believed  discussion  useful. 
This  sort  of  ethical  training  the  hurry  of  our  time  has  largely  exter- 
minated. 

—  George  Herbert  Palmer,  The  Teacher 

To  consider  moral  values  in  education  is  to  fix  attention  upon  what 
should  be  the  paramount  aim.  A  schooling  that  imparts  knowledge 
or  develops  skill  or  cultivates  taste  or  intellectual  aptitudes,  fails 
of  its  supreme  object  if  it  leaves  its  beneficiaries  no  better  morally. 
In  all  their  relationships  present  and  future,  that  is,  as  schoolmates, 
as  friends,  as  members  of  a  family,  as  workers  in  their  special 
vocations,  as  Americans,  as  world  citizens,  the  greatest  need  of  our 
boys  and  girls  is  character  —  the  habitual  disposition  to  choose 
those  modes  of  behavior  that  most  do  honor  to  human  dignity. 
—  Henry  Neumann,  Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Edtication 

Moral  values.    Teachers  have  made  the  mistake  of 

supposing  that  morality  can  be  taught  as  the  content 

subjects  are  taught.     Morality  is  a  state  of  being,  an 

attitude,  a  manner  of  doing  things,  and  not  a  content 

13  185 


I86        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

subject.  Arithmetic,  geography,  literature,  etc.,  are  sub- 
jects that  have  a  specific  content  which  is  valuable  as 
means  to  an  end  and  which  must  be  acquired  before  the 
end  can  be  reached.  It  is  not  the  word  alone  that  teaches, 
but  the  living  word,  the  word  made  flesh.  For  example, 
a  minister's  preaching  is  of  small  value  if  people  have  no 
confidence  in  him.  On  the  other  hand,  a  simple  state- 
ment, a  commonplace  expression,  of  a  man  in  whom  people 
have  great  confidence  outweighs  the  most  profound  utter- 
ances of  a  crook.  But  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  the 
teachings  of  great  men  are  less  effective  in  their  home  com- 
munity than  abroad  because  of  their  human  imperfections. 

How  to  teach  moral  values.  Teachers,  therefore, 
should  not  only  seek  to  understand  the  moral  values  to 
be  found  in  the  conduct  of  students  and  in  the  subjects 
of  the  curriculum,  but  should  seek  to  make  them  live. 
The  one  is  the  means,  the  other  is  the  end,  of  moral  instruc- 
tion. Having  a  standard  of  values,  the  teacher  then 
should  measure  conduct  by  it. 

1.  The  conduct  of  students.  One  of  the  best  means  of 
discovering  moral  values  is  through  cooperation  in  student 
management,  which  was  discussed  in  chapter  xii.  This 
should  form  the  basis  of  much  of  the  moral  instruction  in 
school,  since  it  oflfers  very  many  concrete  illustrations  of 
right  and  wrong  conduct  that  may  form  the  basis  of  much 
discussion  in  school,  and  give  the  teacher  opportunity  to 
shape  the  ideals  and  develop  the  judgment  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  a  need,  therefore,  in  every  school  for  a  period, 
perhaps  a  general  assembly,  for  such  discussion.  The 
topics  sometimes  may  follow  the  lines  laid  down  in  chap- 
ter xix.  Some  specific  interest,  some  breach  of  school 
discipline,  some  new  school  ordinance,  some  patriotic  cele- 
bration, may  also  furnish  the  subject.    Pupils  should  be 


THE  MORAL  AIM   IN   TEACHING  187 

encouraged  to  look  forward  to  this  period  and  to  bring 
up  topics  for  discussion.  The  students'  council  referred 
to  previously  serves  this  purpose. 

When  is  the  best  time  to  hold  the  general  assembly? 

One  plan  is  to  use  the  first  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  of 
the  school  day,  at  which  time  a  little  perfunctory  Bible- 
reading,  a  formal  repetition  of  prayer  or  Bible  quotations, 
and  a  song  or  two  constitute  the  entire  exercises  unless  the 
principal  feels  called  upon  to  reprimand  the  students 
because  of  some  infractions  of  the  school  regulations. 
The  moral  value  of  such  an  exercise  is  slight  as  a  rule. 

Many  superintendents,  on  the  other  hand,  have  learned 
from  experience  that  perhaps  the  best  time  is  thirty  or 
forty  minutes  near  the  middle  of  the  school  day. 

The  period  should  be  long  enough  to  permit  devotional 
exercises,  which  should  not  be  mechanical  and  given  that 
they  may  be  heard  of  men.  It  is  a  good  plan  where 
possible  to  have  the  ministers  of  the  community  conduct 
these  devotional  exercises.  This  practice  will  help  to 
draw  the  ministers  to  the  school. 

Moreover,  music  and  current  events  and  matters  per- 
taining to  the  welfare  of  the  school  may  be  presented. 
Students  should  be  encouraged  to  take  part  in  everything 
that  is  planned  for  this  period.  The  question  of  athletics, 
keeping  the  building  clean,  the  health  of  the  community, 
election  day,  good  plays  in  the  city,  a  great  man  coming 
to  town,  examples  of  fine  conduct,  or  school  regulation 
should  be  discussed  fully.  This  period  should  serve  as 
a  clearing  house  for  all  matters  of  interest  to  the  school, 
and  if  the  teachers  have  an  understanding  of  moral  values 
it  can  be  made  the  most  profitable  period  of  the  day.  It 
should  be  a  time  when  the  school  clubs,  the  glee  club,  the 
literary  clubs,  and  any  other  student  organizations  may 


188  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

have  the  opportunity  to  appear  in  public  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  student  body  and  for  the  training  that 
they  individually  may  derive  from  it. 

2.  The  conduct  oj  the  recitation.  Every  recitation  offers 
some  opportunity  for  calling  out  the  judgment  of  pupils 
and  for  measuring  deeds  by  the  accepted  standard.  From 
the  kindergarten  to  the  last  year,  not  only  formal 
instruction  in  every  subject  in  the  curriculum,  but  the 
method  of  approach  affords  opportunities  for  teaching 
the  cardinal  virtues.  And  the  teacher  who  seeks  to  set 
apart  a  special  period  in  which  to  give  instruction  in  right 
living  and  then  neglects  all  other  opportunities  is  in  the 
same  class  with  the  individual  who  is  pious  one  day  in 
the  week  and  either  immoral  or  immoral  the  other  six 
days.  Moreover,  all  such  instruction  will  become  more  or 
less  mechanical  and  lose  its  deeper  significance  unless  the 
teacher  herself  has  a  keen  sense  of  the  difference  between 
right  and  wrong.  If  she  possesses  this  sense,  such  instruc- 
tion will  not  appear  to  be  manufactured  for  a  piu-pose,  but 
will  be  spontaneous  and  incidental  to  everyday  living. 
But  how  may  the  course  of  study  be  used  in  teaching 
moral  values? 

Literature  offers,  perhaps,  the  best  opportunity.  In 
fact,  the  great  stories,  poems,  essays,  and  dramas  of  the 
world  are  filled  with  a  passion  for  the  tritmiph  of  right  and 
justice.  The  fairy  tale,  the  myth,  the  fable,  the  allegory, 
the  parable,  the  legend,  and  stories  of  heroes  and  heroines, 
both  real  and  created,  present  the  struggle  between  virtue 
and  vice  in  such  concrete '  forms  that  the  teacher  can 
hardly  miss  the  aim,  provided  instruction  does  not  close 
just  with  the  mere  ability  to  read  or  to  reproduce  the 
story.  Nor  does  this  mean  that  the  literatiu"e  period  shall 
be  given  solely  to  discussions  of  moral  questions.     "The 


THE   MORAL   AIM   IN   TEACHING  189 

literary  work  should  first  and  last  be  enjoyed  in  the  spirit 
that  sends  an  adult  to  the  theatre  or  to  a  novel  by  a 
favorite  author  for  an  evening's  recreation.  The  char- 
acter may  be  never  so  fine,  the  sentiments  never  so  exalted 
and  valuable;  but  unless  the  pupils  are  really  stirred, 
whatever  moral  stimulus  the  poem  or  story  can  afford 
will  fail  of  its  object."^ 

But  after  the  student  has  been  stirred,  such  questions 
as  these  will  lead  the  teacher  to  a  higher  aim :  Why  is  the 
story  great  and  why  does  it  live?  What  is  the  character 
of  the  actors?  Why  does  the  child  wish  one  character 
to  triiunph  and  another  to  fail?  These  and  a  number  of 
other  questions  that  follow  in  logical  order  bring  out  the 
cardinal  virtues  that  exist  in  the  world. 

The  Ethical  Culture  School  makes  literature  the  basis 
of  moral  instruction,  and  the  great  stories  of  the  world 
have  been  carefully  classified  and  graded  by  some  instruc- 
tors with  a  view  to  presenting  the  great  life  principles  to 
the  child  in  a  concrete  way.  The  teacher,  therefore, 
should  be  a  good  story-teller,  in  order  to  bring  out  the 
deeper  meaning  of  the  literature,  and  she  should  keep 
in  view  not  only  the  outlines  of  the  story,  but  the  character 
of  the  individual  actors. 

History  is  directly  concerned  with  forces  that  are  both 
moral  and  immoral.  But  it  requires  a  mature  mind  to 
understand  the  problems  as  they  are  presented.  The 
one  reason  perhaps  why  so  many  young  people  dislike 
history  is  because  of  their  inability  to  understand  its 
deeper  ethical  significance. 

But  next  to  literature,  history  offers  the  best  field  for 
the  training  of  moral  judgment.     How  has  man  advanced 

*  Henry  Neumann,  "Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education,"  Bulle- 
tin No.  51,  Bureau  of  Education. 


190  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

to  his  present  stage?  Why  has  the  world  been  at  war? 
Were  the  acts  of  a  nation  right  or  wrong?  Was  the  policy 
of  a  certain  teacher  just  or  unjust?  Was  the  conduct  of 
a  certain  woman  heroic?  What  was  the  purpose  of  the 
great  liberty  docvunents  such  as  the  Bill  of  Rights,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  or  the  Monroe  Doctrine? 

Biography  is  invaluable  in  teaching  morality.  Why  is 
the  man  or  woman  considered  great?  Are  they  simply 
noted  for  one  thing  well  done  or  for  how  they  lived  and 
served  and  led  people?  Why  do  we  celebrate  the  birth- 
days of  great  men  and  great  women?  Compare  George 
Washington  and  Frederick  II  of  Germany,  Hindenburg 
and  Robert  E.  Lee,  Kaiser  William  and  Woodrow  Wilson. 
Here  greatness  will  shine  out  by  contrasts. 

Who  is  the  most  useful  man  in  your  community  and 
your  state?  Pictures  of  the  good  and  great  should  hang 
on  the  school  walls — pictures  of  world  heroes  and  of 
local  and  state  heroes  as  well.  The  school  should  honor 
the  men  and  women  who  have  lived  true  lives,  and  the 
pupils  should  understand  why  they  are  honored. 

Current  events  afford  an  opportunity  for  giving  moral 
instruction.  The  conduct  of  men  and  women,  acts  of 
the  social  group,  proposed  measures  of  reform — all  are 
discussed  in  the  community  and  held  up  to  view  and  meas- 
ured by  the  eternal  standards  of  right,  and  praise  or  con- 
demnation follows  the  judgment.  What  are  good  manners  ? 
What  is  perfect  courtesy  to  all  classes  of  people? 

Great  ministers,  renowned  statesmen,  and  great  school- 
masters have  used  current  events  in  keeping  the  world 
straight.  No  first-class  school  can  afford  to  omit  current 
events.  For  how  shall  we  pass  successfully  from  to-day 
to  to-morrow  if  we  do  not  judge  the  acts  of  to-day  by  the 
best  standards? 


THE   MORAL  AIM   IN   TEACHING  191 

Every  school,  therefore,  should  subscribe  for  current 
periodicals,  and  their  contents  should  be  carefully  studied 
and  classified  and  used  even  in  the  literature  or  history 
classes. 

Music  is  also  a  very  powerful  agency  in  giving  moral 
tone  to  a  community.  The  old  Greeks  used  to  say  with 
much  truth  that  a  good  song  will  purge  the  soul  of 
impurity.  It  will  change  the  temper  of  a  student  body, 
and,  as  a  soft  answer  tumeth  away  wrath,  so  the  right 
song  will  drive  away  dull  care,  freshen  the  soul,  and 
make  for  righteousness.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
agencies  used  by  the  church.  Religious  hymns,  patriotic 
songs,  old  ballads,  and  the  famous  martial  music  of  the 
times  should  be  sung  in  school.  Community  singing  has 
already  been  referred  to,  but  it  should  be  emphasized 
again  here.  The  churches  should  be  encouraged  to  give 
musical  concerts  during  the  week. 

Health  should  become  a  moral  issue.  There  are  two 
factors  to  consider  in  the  preservation  of  health:  (i)  the 
sanitation  and  health  of  the  community  as  a  whole  and 
the  precautions  taken  by  the  individual  to  protect  himself 
and  the  community  from  disease,  and  (2)  the  state  of  mind 
of  the  individual. 

The  first  has  received  considerable  attention  during 
the  past  few  years.  The  school  physician  and  nurse, 
clinics  of  various  kinds,  health  officers  and  sanitary  laws, 
all  have  given  a  new  meaning  and  a  new  value  to  this 
subject  in  school.  Since  the  subject  was  treated  more 
fully  in  chapter  xv,  we  need  say  nothing  further  here  but 
this :  For  a  community,  through  carelessness  or  negligence, 
to  permit  contagious  diseases,  which  may  be  prevented 
with  care,  to  lay  waste  the  people  should  be  considered  a 
moral  evil  even  as  many  crimes  are  considered  moral  evils. 


192  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

This  question,  however,  has  been  raised:  To  what 
extent  is  the  health  of  an  individual  determined  by  his 
state  of  mind?  It  is  well  known  that  one  may  destroy 
the  health  of  another  by  circulating  evil  or  false  reports 
about  him.  Moreover,  a  bad  conscience  or  a  bad  state 
of  mind  may  have  the  same  result. 

The  body  is  the  temple  of  the  soul,  and  thoughts,  feel- 
ings, and  acts  have  as  much  to  do  with  building  the  body, 
perhaps,  as  food,  air,  and  water  taken  into  the  body.  It 
is  demonstrable  that  the  materials  out  of  which  the  body 
is  made  cannot  be  assimilated  properly  if  the  spiritual 
forces  are  inharmonious  and  at  war  within. 

How  do  thoughts  and  feelings  react  on  the  body?  A 
detective  often  detects  a  criminal  by  his  manners  or  by 
the  peculiar  workings  of  his  features,  and  a  physician 
often  tells  the  disease  within  by  simply  observing  the  face 
and  expression  of  the  patients. 

The  physical  and  the  spiritual  are  so  closely  related 
that  they  are  constantly  acting  and  reacting  on  each  other. 

Anger  and  hatred  make  for  hard,  scowling  faces  and 
tense  muscles;  disrespect  and  greed  breed  sensuality, 
coarseness,  and  brutality;  intemperance  brings  pain  and 
weakness ;  courage  develops  calm  and  determined  manners, 
steady  nerve,  and  poise;  and  wisdom  and  good  will  create 
fine  facial  expression,  convincing  speech,  and  confidence. 

The  nervous  system  is  the  connecting  link  between  the 
physical  and  the  spiritual.  Therefore  a  diseased  nervous 
system  may  wreck  both  the  body  and  the  mind. 

This  is  why  children  should  have  plenty  of  sleep,  should 
take  physical  exercise,  should  run  and  laugh  and  play  and 
sing.  It  is  why  good  stories,  fine  pictures,  and  agreeable 
exercises  are  valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  health  as 
well  as  of  morals.  The  care  of  the  body,  therefore,  is  as 
much  a  moral  problem  as  a  psychological  or  sanitary  one. 


THE   MORAL  AIM   IN   TEACHING  193 

The  ancient  Hebrews  made  it  a  religious  matter,  and 
the  Levitical  laws  make  health  one  of  the  cardinal  virtues. 

A  cross,  irritable  teacher  may  do  untold  damage  even 
to  the  health  of  certain  pupils  whose  nervous  systems  are 
already  unsound. 

Other  agencies,  such  as  athletics,  pictures,  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  the  occupations  of  the  people,  manners  and 
customs,  business  methods,  etc.,  may  be  used  in  giving 
moral  instruction.  Wherever  judgment  is  required,  some 
standard  is  erected,  and  the  greatness  of  a  school  depends 
upon  how  great  and  how  practical  is  the  standard  that 
the  teachers  hold  up. 

Justice,  mercy,  courage,  temperance,  honesty,  industry, 
wisdom  —  these  are  the  cardinal  virtues,  and  one 
purpose  of  all  instruction  should  be  to  make  them  live  in 
the  world. 

Henry  Netmiann,  in  "Moral  Values  in  Education,"  Bul- 
letin No.  51,  Bureau  of  Education,  emphasizes  especially 
the  value  of  household  arts  in  giving  moral  instruction,  and 
such  topics  as  these  are  suggested:  the  home  in  history, 
social  forces  affecting  the  home,  the  responsibility  of  the 
consiimer,  cooperative  societies  in  America  and  abroad, 
extravagance  and  thrift,  beauty  and  health  problems. 

Moreover,  in  discussing  the  importance  of  vocational 
gtiidance  and  vocational  education  he  says: 

The  main  ethical  consideration  about  any  calling  is  the  effect 
for  better  or  worse  which  it  exercises:  (i)  Upon  the  personality  of 
the  man  who  enters  it,  e.g.,  does  it  broaden  his  mind  or  cramp  it? 
(2)  Upon  his  fellow  workers,  e.g.,  what  should  "setting  the  pace  for 
one's  competitors"  mean?  (3)  Upon  the  people  who  do  the  pur- 
chasing, e.g.,  compare  educating  the  public  taste  with  debauching 
it;  and  (4)  upon  the  other  callings  with  which  his  own  is  interrelated, 
e.g.,  the  stimulus  given  to  modem  scientific  labors  by  industrial 
progress,  or  the  interchange  between  business  and  art  in  such  fields 
as  fiunitiu-e  making  and  advertising. 


194       EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

The  ideal  rewards  of  work  should  be  given  full  honor  in  shaping 
the  choice  of  a  vocation.  These  consist  of  the  opportunity  to  bene- 
fit mankind  by  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  commodities  or  the 
services  offered  and,  equally  important,  the  opportunity  to  develop 
intelligence  and  other  attributes  of  personality  through  useful  serv- 
ice. In  a  survey  of  the  vocations,  consideration  should  be  given 
to  the  special  temptations  in  each  calling  and  to  the  endeavors 
that  have  been  or  should  be  made  to  improve  the  code  of  its  ethics. 
The  teacher  should  be  especially  alert  for  every  instance  in  which  a 
vocational  group  is  trying  to  raise  its  standards;  for  example,  the 
recent  efiforts  of  the  Associated  Advertising  Clubs  to  banish  adver- 
tisements of  fraudulent  medicines.  Through  biographies  of  leading 
figures  in  the  various  callings,  pupils  should  study  the  effect  that 
the  work  exerted  upon  the  personality  of  the  man.  Public  and 
school  libraries  may  offer  considerable  assistance  by  collating 
material  in  magazines,  books,  and  obituary  accounts  of  leaders  in 
several  vocations.  Much  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the  qualities, 
particularly  the  moral  qualities,  essential  to  true  success,  and  ways 
by  which  these  may  be  cultivated. 

The  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail.  It  has  been  the  dream 
of  man  since  the  beginning  to  find  the  highest  good,  the 
most  precious  gift.  In  all  ages  and  in  all  climes,  he  has 
set  out  on  the  quest.  The  Holy  Grail,  the  symbol  of  the 
perfect,  the  pure,  the  righteous,  the  just,  has  been  his 
lodestar,  drawing  him  always  upward  and  onward.  The 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  the  chevaliers  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  great  and  good  men  in  peace  and  in  war  have 
gone  in  search  of  it.  The  soldier  boys  of  America,  from 
the  Philippine  and  Hawaiian  Islands,  from  Alaska,  and 
from  Porto  Rico,  as  well  as  from  the  states  of  the  Union, 
have  been  sent  thousands  of  miles  from  home  in  the 
quest  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our 
prayers,  have  been  with  them,  and  our  faith  is  triiunphant 
that,  as  they  come  marching  home  again,  humanity  after 
its  long  and  perilous  journey  will  be  nearer  the  goal,  and 
the  world  will  be  a  safer  place  in  which  to  live.  The 
school  must  help  to  keep  it  so. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
IDLENESS  A  FOE  TO  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP 

A  New  Obligation  upon  the  School 

The  fact  remains  that  in  the  lives  of  most  men  there  has  been  a 
great  loss  of  time  and  energy  in  the  search  for  their  place  in  the 
world's  work.  The  main  cause  for  this  great  economic  loss  may 
be  laid  at  the  door  of  our  public  schools.  We  have  failed  to  inspire 
our  youth  with  the  necessity  for  an  aim  in  life.  We  have  held  out 
the  ideal  of  education  as  a  means  to  professional  careers,  and  have 
ignored  the  fact  that  the  right  sort  of  study  in  preparation  for  other 
careers  is  just  as  worthy  and  just  as  necessary  as  for  those  desig- 
nated by  high-sounding  titles 

Hence,  of  all  the  problems  that  have  been  placed  upon  the  public 
schools  for  solution,  there  is  none  more  difficult,  more  fraught  with 
danger,  or  more  full  of  splendid  possibility  than  that  of  guiding  each 
boy  and  each  girl  into  the  course  of  study  or  the  kind  of  school 
that  will  best  prepare  them  for  that  particular  field  of  service  in 
which  they  may  be  most  truly  successful. 

—  Jesse  Buttrick  Davis,  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance 

During  school  hours  and  out  of  school,  on  mornings,  afternoons, 
Saturdays,  and  during  vacation  all  older  children  and  youth  should 
be  encovxraged  and  directed  to  do  as  much  useful  productive  work 
as  they  can  without  interfering  with  their  more  important  school 
duties.  This  productive  work  should  be  so  directed  as  to  give  it 
the  highest  possible  value,  both  economically  and  educationally. 

— P.  P.  Claxton 

•The  whole  nation  shall  be  a  team  in  which  each  man  shall  play 

the  part  for  which  he  is  best  fitted Each  man  shall  be 

classified  for  service  in  the  place  to  which  it  shall  best  serve  the 
general  good  to  call  him. 

— WooDROW  Wilson,  Proclamation,  May  i8,  1917 

One  aim  in  education.  One  of  the  greatest  human  as 
well  as  social  evils  is  idleness  or  improperly  directed 
energy.  The  cause  of  this  evil  may  doubtless  be  foimd 
in  an  improper  social  ideal.  Happiness,  the  goal  toward 
which  humanity  moves,  is  supposed  to  be  found  in  a 

195 


196  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

state  of  ease  and  rest  free  from  toil  and  care  and  respon- 
sibility. This  is  not  only  a  social  ideal,  but  it  is  likewise 
a  religious  ideal.  No  one  knows  what  the  ideal  state 
after  death  is.  But  human  experience  gives  abundance 
of  proof  that  for  a  vigorous,  red-blooded  youth  happiness 
is  closely  related  to  well-directed  energy  that  gives  satis- 
factory results. 

All  conscious  instruction,  therefore,  has  ever  had  one 
of  two  aims  in  view.  The  first  is  to  form  the  character 
of  the  youth  in  accordance  with  some  ideal  standard,  and 
the  second  is  to  adjust  the  individual  to  some  occupation 
and  to  induct  him  into  some  vocation  whereby  he  may 
become  self-supporting  and  contribute  to  the  well-being 
of  society. 

However,  one  defect  in  education  has  been  that  one 
aim  has  been  stressed  to  the  neglect  or  the  exclusion  of  the 
other.  The  Puritans  had  a  fine  conception  of  the  union 
of  the  two.  When  speaking  officially  of  education,  they 
usually  coupled  "learning  and  labor"  together.  There 
should  be  one  aim  in  education  —  to  learn  to  live  right 
while  learning  to  make  a  living. 

Every  man  self-made.  The  school  should  emphasize 
this  truth  that  the  making  of  an  individual  is  the  result 
of  his  own  self -activity.  Every  man  is  self-made.  There 
is  an  erroneous  conception  that  only  the  man  or  woman 
who  struggled  up  from  infancy  through  poverty  and  poor 
educational  advantages  to  places  of  trust  and  power  and 
renown  is  self-made.  We  should  rather  take  another  view 
of  life  in  a  democracy,  namely,  that  every  individual  is 
self-rhade. 

When  a  child  is  bom,  society  begins  anew.  All  indi- 
viduals, regardless  of  birth,  family,  environment,  or  other 
conditions,  must  to  a  certain  extent  travel  parallel  roads, 


IDLENESS  A  FOE  TO   GOOD   CITIZENSHIP        197 

and  the  handicaps  of  wealth  and  family  are  sometimes 
as  great  as  the  handicap  of  poverty.  Teachers  would  do 
well  to  study  the  lives  of  the  men  and  women  who  have 
brought  America  to  its  present  high  plane  in  the  world. 
The  results  will  be  valuable  to  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

There  still  lingers  in  the  world  even  in  our  democratic 
nation  a  vestige  of  that  old  divine  right  of  kings  that 
accredits  the  Lord  with  bestowing  upon  certain  classes 
special  privileges  and  upon  other  classes  a  lot  of  hardship 
and  poverty  and  drudgery,  and  some  are  not  yet  quite 
wilhng  to  give  the  youth  of  the  latter  class  a  fair  chance 
to  make  themselves.  It  is  not  the  Lord's  will  that  one 
class  of  people  should  forever  dig  and  delve  and  slave  for 
a  privileged  few  and  that  another  class  should  live  forever 
in  ease  and  luxury.  But  it  is  man's  inhimianity  to  man 
that  has  brought  about  this  condition.  The  world  is 
still  in  the  process  of  making  itself,  and  society  should 
say  to  every  individual  what  Edward  the  Great  of  England 
is  reputed  to  have  said  of  his  son,  the  Black  Prince,  at 
the  battle  of  Crecy:  "Let  him  win  his  spurs." 

The  greatest  evil.  The  greatest  evil,  perhaps,  in  society 
is  idleness,  since  the  idle,  vagrant  individual  stops  aU 
forces  within  himself  that  operate  in  the  proper  making 
of  the  individual,  and  an  idle  class  has  the  same  effect 
upon  society. 

Social  workers  have  been  confronted  with  the  vagrancy 
evil  since  the  beginning  of  history.  The  English  Poor 
Laws  and  the  vagrancy  acts  stand  as  grim  monuments  to 
the  failure  of  civilization  in  this  respect  and  to  the  inade- 
quacy of  all  educational  systems.  The  world  tried  com- 
pulsory apprenticeship  for  two  hundred  years.  Then  it 
substituted  the  modem  public-school  system,  but  still 
the  evil  is  present;  and  during  the  war,  when  every  nation 


198  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

was  calling  for  workers  at  wages  heretofore  unthought  of, 
large  numbers  of  able-bodied  young  men,  especially  in 
our  cities  and  towns,  were  living  from  morning  until 
night  not  even  earning  their  board  and  keep. 

Some  of  the  earliest  proverbs  laid  down  by  society  are 
"Idleness  is  an  evil,"  and  "The  idle  brain  is  the  devil's 
workshop,"  and  "He  that  will  not  work  shall  not  eat." 
Every  society  that  has  a  recorded  history  passes  the  same 
verdict  on  idlers,  loafers,  and  vagrants.  Civil  law,  canon 
law,  and  natural  law,  all  have  been  invoked  with  a  mini- 
mum of  success,  and  still  the  evil  remains  in  one  form  or 
another. 

Every  great  educational  reformer  has  attacked  the 
problem.  Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  Utopia  pointed  out 
the  evil  and  suggested  compulsory  training  in  some  trade 
or  vocation.  John  Locke  in  his  scheme  for  education 
made  training  for  a  trade  a  necessary  part  of  his  scheme 
for  the  education  of  the  youth  of  England.  Rousseau 
made  his  whole  philosophy  turn  on  the  same  point. 
Pestalozzi  constructed  a  new  method  and  a  new  educa- 
tional practice  by  utilizing  the  occupations  of  the  people 
in  his  education  of  the  poor,  and  the  reformers  of  to-day 
are  no  less  insistent. 

When  our  public-school  system  was  established,  it  was 
declared  by  its  founders  that  education  would  banish 
ignorance,  idleness,  and  poverty.  It  was  then  believed 
that  knowledge  of  an  evil  would  correct  that  evil. 

The  trouble,  however,  seems  to  be  in  the  nature  of 
society  as  it  is  organized,  and  if  this  evil  is  to  be  corrected 
it  must  be  attacked  in  every  grade  of  society.  A  social 
ideal  can  be  formulated  and  the  school  can  help  to  attain 
it,  but  the  problem  will  be  solved  only  by  the  school  and 
society  working  jointly. 


IDLENESS  A   FOE  TO   GOOD   CITIZENSHIP       199 

Lessons  from  the  war.  A  valuable  lesson  may  be 
derived  from  the  war,  since  the  success  of  the  nation  in 
putting  into  play  the  energies  of  such  a  large  number  of 
people  who  heretofore  had  been  leading  useless,  idle  lives 
is  an  evidence  of  what  can  be  done  in  an  emergency. 

1.  Work  and  cooperation.  Work  and  cooperation 
became  a  social  as  well  as  a  national  ideal,  and  the  finger 
of  scorn  was  pointed  at  the  individual  who  was  leading 
a  useless  life.  Never  in  the  history  of  the  nation  have 
the  idlers,  the  slackers,  and  the  vagrants  received  such 
condemnation,  and  every  individual  who  had  a  spark  of 
pride  or  patriotism  left  felt  an  impelling  force  from  within 
to  become  a  partner  in  the  great  task.  Even  women 
whose  social  ideal  had  been  to  lead  lives  of  ease  and 
luxury  and  pleasure-seeking  felt  the  impulse,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  over  a  milUon  women  found  a  pvtrpose  in 
life  and  an  opportunity  to  serve. 

Leaders  of  the  nation — social  leaders,  labor  leaders, 
and  leaders  of  industries — emphasized  the  necessity  of 
putting  into  play  all  the  energies  of  all  the  people,  not  only 
to  win  the  war,  but  to  secure  a  sane  and  safe  readjustment 
after  the  war. 

2.  Work  or  fight.  The  national  slogan  became  "Work 
or  fight."  But  still  the  unemployed,  notwithstanding 
the  great  demand  for  labor,  were  so  numerous  that 
it  was  quite  evident  that  distressingly  large  nimibers  of 
citizens  had  become  so  habituated  to  ways  of  idleness 
that  they  could  not  be  reached  by  appeals  to  their  pride 
or  to  their  patriotism. 

The  matter  was  so  serious  that  the  Provost  Marshal 
General  of  the  United  States  promulgated  an  amendment 
to  the  Selective  Service  Regtdations,  which  required  every 
man  of  draft  age  either  to  go  into  the  army  or  else  go  to 


200  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

work  at  some  useftil  occupation,  and  a  list  of  occupations 
for  men  of  draft  age  was  issued  for  the  information  of  those 
concerned.  This  regulation  is  popularly  known  as  the 
"work  or  fight"  amendment.  In  the  attempt  to  put  the 
order  into  effect  a  host  of  idlers,  grown  men,  strong  men, 
were  rounded  up  by  the  thousands.  But  still  the  question 
remains  unanswered:  Why  do  such  men  prefer  idleness 
when  the  rest  of  the  world  desires  emplo5mient? 

Many  states,  following  the  lead  of  the  Provost  Marshal 
General,  passed  stringent  laws  against  idlers  and  loafers, 
and  in  most  if  not  all  the  large  towns  and  cities  officers 
of  the  law  were  at  work  rounding  them  up.  However, 
there  is  nothing  new  or  original  in  these  acts  save  the 
application  to  immediate  needs.  Every  nation,  as  was 
said  above,  has  at  one  time  or  another  passed  similar 
laws.  The  history  of  social  evolution  contains  these 
landmarks.  But  idleness  is  not  cured  by  the  passing  of 
laws  against  it.  Citizens  must  act,  and  if  the  evil  is 
cured  it  will  be  at  the  same  price  that  is  paid  for  liberty 
— eternal  vigilance  and  eternal  cooperation. 

War  has  stopped  the  flow  of  emigrants  from  Europe. 
It  has  killed  or  disabled  the  laborers  of  the  world  by  the 
millions.  The  demand  for  intelligent  or  skilled  labor  is 
great  now,  and  it  will  be  very  great  for  many  years  to  come. 
The  old  shiftless  laborer  lacking  in  courage,  self-respect, 
and  thrift  must  go. 

Vagrancy  now  is  a  national  peril.  The  energy  of  every 
man  and  woman  is  needed.  Before  the  war  vagrancy  was 
a  source  of  much  immorality ;  after  the  war,  especially  when 
the  soldiers  are  returning  home  and  are  being  adjusted 
to  ways  of  peace,  it  may  become  a  much  greater  evil  to 
society  than  it  was  before  the  war.  It  was  * '  work  or  fight ' ' 
then.     But  in  the  futtu"e  what  will  be  the  alternative  ? 


IDLENESS   A   FOE   TO   GOOD   CITIZENSHIP       201 

How  other  vices  are  cured.  Idleness  is  a  vice,  just  as 
is  drunkenness,  or  opium  eating,  or  pistol  toting,  or  tres- 
passing, or  breaking  one's  contract.  It  should  be  attacked 
just  as  other  vices  have  been  attacked,  by  better  teaching 
and  by  a  ceaseless  crusade  preached  against  it,  as  well  as 
by  the  force  of  the  law.  Too  few  warnings  have  been 
raised  against  this  national  evil.  How  have  other  vices 
been  corrected?  The  history  of  prohibition  is  a  good 
illustration. 

Just  a  hundred  years  ago  prohibition  societies  were 
organized,  and  at  a  time  when  the  evils  of  drunkenness 
were  felt  only  by  a  few.  But  the  evil  of  intemperance  was 
preached  from  the  pulpit  and  from  the  platform.  The 
community  conscience  was  aroused.  Later,  descriptions 
of  the  dangers  of  alcoholic  drinks  to  the  human  body  were 
incorporated  in  the  textbooks  and  taught  in  school. 
State  laws  followed.  Preaching  and  teaching  were 
broadened.     Finally  physicians  were  moved  to  act. 

They  declared  that  alcoholic  drinks  were  not  absolutely 
essential  to  the  treatment  of  disease.  Instruction  in  the 
schools  was  broadened,  and  thus  by  constant  preaching 
and  lecturing  and  teaching,  enough  of  the  nation  was 
aroused  to  make  prohibition  popular  even  among  selfish 
politicians.  Then  it  began  to  sweep  the  country.  As  a 
result,  the  nation  has  amended  its  Constitution  so  as  to 
be  able  to  correct  this  evil. 

But  the  public  conscience  had  to  be  aroused.  Public 
opinion  rules  the  world,  and  the  world  is  safer  to-day  from 
this  great  evil  than  ever  before,  because  of  the  force  of 
public  opinion,  which  is  bought  at  the  same  price 
that  is  paid  for  liberty — eternal  vigilance  and  eternal 
cooperation. 

What,  then,  is  the  duty  of  the  school? 

14  U3RAHY 

sZ  TA  E*«ARA,C.L<FOR«* 


i5..hs.:l.. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE   SCHOOL   MUST   ATTACK   THE   PROBLEM 
OF  IDLENESS 

Unify  Learning  and  Labor 

There  was  once  assumed  a  permanent  division  between  a  leisure 
class  and  a  laboring  class.  Education,  beyond  at  least  the  mere 
rudiments,  was  intended  only  for  the  former.  Its  subject  matter 
and  its  methods  were  designed  for  those  who  were  suflSciently  well 
off  so  that  they  did  not  have  to  work  for  a  living.  The  stigma 
attached  to  working  with  the  hands  was  especially  strong.  In 
aristocratic  and  feudal  countries  such  work  was  done  by  slaves 
or  serfs,  and  the  sense  of  social  inferiority  attached  to  these  classes 
naturally  led  to  contempt  for  the  pursuits  in  which  they  were 
engaged.  Training  for  them  was  a  servile  sort  of  education,  while 
liberal  education  was  an  education  for  a  free  man,  and  a  free  man 
was  a  member  of  the  upper  classes,  one  who  did  not  have  to  engage 
in  labor  for  his  own  support  or  that  of  others.  The  antagonism 
in  industry  which  was  generated  extended  itself  to  all  activities 
requiring  use  of  the  hands 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  very  notions  of  knowledge  and  of 
mind  were  influenced  by  this  aristocratic  order  of  society.  The 
less  the  body  in  general,  and  the  hands  and  the  senses  in  particular, 
were  employed,  the  higher  the  grade  of  intellectual  activity.  True 
thought  resulting  in  true  knowledge  was  to  be  carried  on  wholly 
within  the  mind  without  the  body  taking  any  part  at  all.  Hence 
studies  which  could  be  carried  on  with  a  minimum  of  physical 
action  were  alone  the  studies  belonging  to  a  liberal  education. 

— John  Dewey,  Schools  of  To-morrow 

Treat  idleness  as  a  vice.  Laziness  is  not  the  nattiral 
state  of  an  individual.  It  is  a  vice  and  should  be  treated 
as  such.  But  it  is  the  most  curable  of  vices  if  taken  in 
time,  and  about  the  least  curable  when  it  becomes  chronic, 
for  when  a  man  is  once  really  sunk  in  laziness,  he  seldom 
rises  out  of  it.  It  seems  to  be  easier  to  cure  a  confirmed 
sot,  or  a  professional  burglar,  or  tuberculosis. 

One  needs  only  to  study  a  little  child  to  see  that  inac- 
tivity is  not  the  natural  state.    A  healthy  child  is  active 

202 


THE  SCHOOL  MUST  ATTACK   IDLENESS         203 

from  morning  until  night.  It  is  out  in  the  streets,  under 
the  house,  in  the  woods,  roaming  the  fields.  Something 
within  compels  it  to  go.  It  is  in  the  adolescent  age  that 
it  dreams  and  sits  around  and  ceases  to  become  active. 

Methods  of  attack.  The  school,  therefore,  should  be 
the  first  social  agency  to  attack  the  problem,  because 
children  of  school  age  are  naturally  energetic  unless  they 
are  physically  defective.  Ministers  and  public  lecturers, 
physicians  and  other  professional  men  should  periodically 
bring  the  seriousness  of  the  evil  to  the  conscience  of  the 
people.  But  the  teacher  should  take  the  initiative, 
because  the  viciousness  of  idleness  does  not  appear  until 
after  school  age,  and  after  the  habit  has  been  fixed.  The 
dangers  lurking  in  other  vices  appear  at  once  while  the 
habits  are  being  formed.  But  this  is  not  true  of  the  habit 
of  laziness. 

It  is  said  that  a  group  of  loafers  was  carried  before  the 
officials  of  New  York  under  the  "work  or  fight"  rule  and 
many  absolutely  refiised  to  engage  in  any  productive 
employtnent  imless  they  were  placed  in  some  office  work 
where  the  physical  exercise  would  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. They  were  habituated  to  ways  of  physical  lassi- 
tude and  bodily  inertia.  They  had  lost  the  compelling 
power  from  within.     They  were  without  will  to  act. 

I.  Exercise  the  first  remedy.  This  opens  up  the  whole 
question  of  physical  exercise  in  school,  parks,  and  play- 
grounds for  the  children  of  the  crowded  towns  and  cities, 
and  the  need  of  proper  supervision.  An  individual  with 
a  strong,  vigorous  body  can  hardly  be  lazy.  But  as 
society  becomes  more  and  more  congested,  as  the  spirit 
within  is  more  and  more  distracted  by  the  passing  show, 
the  signs  of  a  degenerate  self  begin  to  appear.  The  idle 
class  soon  gravitates  to  the  large  cities. 


204  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

A  child  that  is  physically  active  cannot  suddenly  become 
inactive  if  it  is  in  good  health.  It  is  as  much  the  duty, 
therefore,  of  the  teachers  to  see  that  all  the  children,  the 
boys  and  the  girls,  the  primary  and  the  high-school 
students,  are  physically  active  as  it  is  to  see  that  they  are 
mentally  active.  It  should  be  a  part  of  the  program  of 
the  boards  of  education,  especially  in  the  towns  and  cities, 
to  see  that  parks  are  provided  for  little  children  and  that 
playgrounds  are  constructed  for  boys  and  girls.  More- 
over, athletic  sports,  outdoor  games,  and  plays  should 
form  an  essential  part  of  every  source  of  study  and  should 
take  equal  rank  with  mathematics  or  history  or  drawing 
or  music  or  any  other  subject. 

The  late  William  James  has  an  essay  on  "The  Gospel 
of  Relaxation"  in  Talks  on  Psychology  and  Life's  Ideals 
which  every  teacher  should  read.     On  page  204  he  says: 

They  tell  us  that  in  Norway  the  life  of  the  women  has  lately  been 
entirely  revolutionized  by  the  new  order  of  muscular  feelings  with 
which  the  use  of  the  ski,  or  long  snow-shoes,  as  a  sport  for  both 
sexes,  has  made  the  women  acquainted.  Fifteen  years  ago  the 
Norwegian  women  were,  even  more  than  the  women  of  other  lands, 
votaries  of  the  old-fashioned  ideal  of  femininity,  "the  domestic 
angel,"  "the  gentle  and  refining  influence"  sort  of  thing. 

Now  these  sedentary  fireside  tabby-cats  of  Norway  have  been 
trained,  they  say,  by  the  snow-shoes  into  lithe  and  audacious 
creatures,  for  whom  no  night  is  too  dark  or  height  too  giddy,  and 
who  are  not  only  saying  good-bye  to  the  traditional  feminine  pallor 
and  delicacy  of  constitution,  but  actually  taking  the  lead  in  every 
educational  and  social  reform. 

I  cannot  but  think  that  the  tennis  and  tramping  and  skating 
habits  and  the  bicycle  craze  which  are  so  rapidly  extending  among 
our  dear  sisters  and  daughters  in  this  country  are  going  also  to  lead 
to  a  sounder  and  heartier  moral  tone,  which  will  send  its  tonic 
breath  through  all  our  American  life. 

2.  Credit  for  home  work.  It  is  one  thing  for  the  school 
to  talk  about  work  and  quite  another  to  honor  work  in 


THE   SCHOOL  MUST   ATTACK  IDLENESS         205 

such  a  way  that  the  student  is  given  an  incentive  to  work. 
The  school  has  neglected  to  reach  into  the  community 
and  give  credit  for  patriotic  work  done  by  pupils.  Here 
is  a  problem: 

Joe  drives  a  milk  wagon  for  his  father's  dairy.  After 
school  he  rounds  up  the  cows  and  feeds  them.  He  has 
little  time  for  study  at  night,  because  he  must  rise  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  when  he  begins  to  make  his  rounds 
again.  He  is  honest,  industrious,  and  punctual.  He  is 
required  by  the  school,  however,  to  carry  the  same  number 
of  daily  recitations  as  all  other  students  carry.  Some- 
times when  it  is  bad  weather  he  is  late  at  school  or  fails 
altogether  to  go.  His  report  card  for  one  month  shows 
the  following: 

English  —  Failure 

Arithmetic  —  Good 

Geography  —  Passing 

Spelling  —  Failiire 

History  —  Passing 

Deportment  —  Good 

Tardy  —  Four  times 

Absent  —  Two  times 

Remarks:  Indifferent  in  his  studies  and  in  attendance. 

The  teacher's  record  shows  that  Joe's  classroom  work 
was  satisfactory  in  only  three  studies — arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  history.  One  would  judge  from  this  report 
that  he  was  a  careless  boy,  inattentive  to  duty,  and  far 
below  the  standard  in  attainments.  But  quite  the  reverse 
is  true.  He  works  nearly  six  hours  a  day  more  than  other 
boys  in  school.  He  is  honest,  punctual,  reliable,  and 
industrious.  But  he  has  too  much  to  do.  He  is  not  a 
failure,  but  is  without  capacity  to  do  twice  as  much  work 
as  is  required  of  the  others.  The  result  is  almost  inevi- 
table.    Such  a  school  policy  will  cause  him  to  hate  work, 


206  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

or  hate  the  school.  And  this  charge  may  be  brought 
against  the  school,  that  unconsciously  it  discourages  hon- 
est work  necessary  to  the  support  of  the  family,  that  is 
just  as  helpful  in  making  the  boy  as  the  school  work. 

The  teacher  should  have  honored  the  outside  work  and 
should  have  encouraged  others  to  do  likewise.  Joe  should 
have  been  given  credit  for  it,  and  he  should  not  have  been 
required  to  carry  as  many  studies  as  those  who  do  no 
outside  work.  The  teacher  should  have  discussed  with 
him  ways  of  becoming  more  efficient.  All  necessary  work 
at  home  done  by  pupils  should  be  given  a  high  place  on 
the  honor  roll  of  the  school. 

The  school  by  taking  into  account  home  tasks  can  very 
often  make  the  school  an  aid  to  the  home  instead  of  a 
burden  and  a  drawback.  It  can  make  a  task  that  once 
seemed  drudgery  helpful  in  establishing  right  habits  and 
it  can  dignify  labor  in  the  minds  of  all  children.  Such  a 
policy  would  make  a  boy  or  girl  proud  of  his  work  rather 
than  ashamed  of  it.  But  how  many  students  conceal 
the  fact  that  they  have  to  work  at  home  because  they  are 
ashamed  to  have  their  companions  know  it,  because  the 
social  ideal  is  out  of  harmony  with  home  work? 

Moral  leaders  have  too  often  taken  an  extreme  stand 
against  games  and  plays,  because  imitative  work,  petty 
incidental  jobs,  or  tired  men's  recreation  too  often  became 
major  factors  in  shaping  the  lives  of  the  youth.  Mis- 
guided reformers  would  therefore  prohibit  tired  men  and 
women  from  engaging  in  their  sports,  but  to  eliminate 
these  from  the  lives  of  the  tired  might  be  as  injurious  to 
them  as  laziness  is  to  youth. 

3.  Study  the  vocations.  Long  before  the  student  passes 
through  the  high  school  his  mind  begins  to  turn  to  some 
vocation.     However,  his  opinions  may  change  from  year 


THE  SCHOOL  MUST  ATTACK  IDLENESS         207 

to  year.  Few  college  graduates  follow  the  occupation 
they  had  elected  to  follow  in  their  high-school  years. 
But  this  is  an  evidence  that  the  child,  even  unaided  by  the 
school,  is  studying  the  occupations. 

What  are  the  leading  occupations  of  the  community? 
What  opportunities  do  they  offer  an  individual  in  which 
to  work  out  his  destiny  and  attain  his  goal?  There  is 
scarcely  an  occupation  in  which  some  man  has  not 
achieved  distinction — Luther  Burbank  in  the  plant 
world,  Edison  in  the  electrical  world,  Goethals  in  engi- 
neering, William  Booth  in  moral  and  religious  leadership, 
Seeman  A.  Knapp  in  agriculture,  and  Samuel  Gompers 
as  a  labor  leader.  Every  worthy  vocation  has  at  one  time 
or  another  afforded  some  individual  an  opportunity  to 
achieve  fame  and  distinction.  The  example  of  the  direc- 
tors of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  in  providing 
vocational  lectures  for  the  young  men  is  one  that  could 
be  followed  by  the  school  with  profit  to  all  people  of  a 
community. 

Who  are  the  men  of  the  community  that  are  succeeding? 
What  virtues  do  they  possess?  Industry  is  always  one  of 
them.  The  leading  industrial  workers  of  a  community 
should  be  invited  to  the  school  to  discuss  the  advantages 
of  their  respective  occupations. 

School  gardens  and  home  gardens  have  come  to  the 
front  of  late  as  a  necessary  war  measure.  But  any  helpful 
work  that  a  boy  or  girl  may  do  at  home  should  be  honored 
in  school  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  take  equal  rank 
with  any  work  done  in  school.  Teachers  cannot  have 
pupils  discuss  too  often  their  home  tasks,  or  their  fathers' 
occupations,  or  occupations  they  would  like  to  follow. 

The  Bureau  of  Education,  at  Washington,  D.C.,  has 
collected  a  great  deal  of  information  on  home  projects 


208  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

showing  how  widespread  is  the  tendency  to  give  credit  in 
school  for  work  done  at  home  and  elsewhere. 

Child  labor  laws  are  essential.  We  cannot  emphasize 
too  strongly  the  need  of  such  laws  in  order  to  save  the 
child  from  heartless  industries  that  would  profit  at  the 
expense  of  child  welfare.  But  while  we  are  emphasizing 
this  particular  phase  of  this  great  social  question,  it  is 
also  necessary  that  we  shall  not  put  a  premium  on  idle- 
ness.    Just  here  is  a  very  difficult  adjustment  to  be  made. 

4.  Part-time  classes.  In  many  of  the  larger  towns  and 
cities  part-time  classes  have  been  organized  by  the  school 
authorities  cooperating  with  industrial  institutions.  The 
work  is  so  arranged  that  students  may  go  to  school  a 
part  of  the  time  and  work  a  part  of  the  time  in  some  of  the 
industries  of  the  community.  The  principal  in  charge 
secures  the  employment  for  the  students,  and  when  they 
enter  an  industrial  institution,  it  is  not  unusual  for  them 
to  be  placed  first  under  an  instructor  in  the  employ  of 
the  business,  whose  duties  are  to  instruct  all  new  employees 
in  the  mysteries  of  the  trade. 

Such  a  student  may  go  to  school  a  half -day  and  work  a 
half-day,  or  he  may  attend  school  a  week  or  two  weeks 
and  work  the  same  length  of  time.  Such  students  should 
be  organized  in  relays  so  that  classes  may  be  conducted 
and  the  work  carried  on  in  the  industrial  institutions  with- 
out interruption. 

Part-time  classes  might  be  organized  also  in  rural  schools 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  students  in  school  and  yet 
allow  them  to  spare  some  time  to  their  parents  who  may 
need  their  labor.  Some  schools  begin  an  hour  earlier  in 
the  busiest  seasons  and  close  earlier  in  order  to  cooperate 
with  parents.  There  never  was  a  time  when  a  higher 
premium  should  be  placed  on  honest  work,  and,  instead 


THE  SCHOOL  MUST  ATTACK   IDLENESS         209 

of  being  a  burden  to  the  home,  the  school  should  reunite 
"learning  and  labor"  in  the  educational  world.  Our 
compulsory  school  laws  have  nowhere  been  altogether 
successful.  Could  they  not  be  more  successful  if  the 
school  would  undertake  to  bring  about  the  right  com- 
bination of  "learning  and  labor"? 

The  amendment  to  the  New  York  attendance  laws  of 
19 18  went  so  far  as  to  say: 

A  pupil  in  the  public  schools  or  in  any  state  school  or  institution 
who  is  relieved  from  school  work  and  is  engaged  satisfactorily  in 
agricultural  service  during  the  present  school  year  shall  be  given 
credit  for  the  work  of  the  present  term  without  examination,  on  the 
certificate  of  the  person  in  charge  of  such  school  or  institution  that 
his  work  therein,  up  to  the  time  of  engaging  in  such  service,  is 
satisfactory.! 

Some  schools  have  the  ungraded  room  for  pupils  who 
are  unable  to  do  the  normal  amount  of  work  because  of 
the  home  work  required  of  them.  Teachers  should  study 
all  of  these  plans,  and  seek  to  honor  labor  in  any  line. 

5.  The  hoy  cadet.  In  many  of  our  large  centers,  school 
principals  organize  the  boys  during  vacation  into  com- 
panies of  boy  cadets,  and  squads  are  sent  out  under  proper 
guidance  to  work  on  farms — harvesting  grain,  picking 
fruit  and  berries,  plowing  fields,  or  working  in  dairies. 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  other 
organizations  have  interested  themselves  in  the  boy  prob- 
lem in  finding  work  for  boys  to  do. 

The  Bureau  of  Educational  Training  of  New  York  state 
requests  its  representatives  to  seek  employxaent  for  boys. 

All  schools  could  organize  classes  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  to  pick  berries  or  gather  vegetables,  and  in  the  fall 
to  gather  fruit  and  other  foods.  This  work  might  come 
under  the  head  of  part-time  school  work. 

1  Amendment  to  School  Attendance  Law  of  New  York  State,  Sec.  4. 


2IO  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

The  time  may  be  nearer  at  hand  than  teachers  and  prin- 
cipals suppose  when  teachers  must  report  on  the  activities 
of  boys  and  girls  diiring  vacation. 

6.  Use  of  old  subjects.  Nearly  every  subject  in  school 
can  be  made  to  aid  the  teacher  in  emphasizing  the  virtue 
of  industry  and  the  value  of  work  in  the  making  of  the 
individual. 

Biography  is  of  course  one  of  the  best  aids.  The  men 
who  have  succeeded,  who  have  become  great,  and  whose 
deeds  to-day  stir  the  youth  have  been  industrious  men. 
It  was  their  self -activity  that  gave  them  the  strength  to 
do.  They  have  been  hard,  incessant  workers,  and  the 
games  and  sports  they  have  indulged  in  at  odd  hours  have 
served  as  a  recreation  and  enabled  them  to  return  to  work 
invigorated  in  body  and  mind. 

Geography  is  also  valuable  as  an  aid  in  giving  proper 
perspective.  What  are  the  occupations  in  the  community 
that  can  be  studied?  In  the  state?  In  the  nation?  If 
students  knew  more  of  the  possibilities  of  the  occupations 
of  the  state  in  which  they  live,  there  would  not,  in  all 
probability,  be  so  many  college  students  rushing  into  the 
overcrowded  professions. 

Teachers  in  a  farming  community  might  have  students 
make  a  study  of  farming  as  an  occupation.  The  old-time 
composition  on  "The  Superior  Advantages  of  Rural  Life 
over  City  Life"  should  give  way  to  a  sensible  study  of 
farming  as  a  vocation.  This  applies  alike  to  other  occu- 
pations. An  active  child  stirred  by  the  possibilities  of 
service  and  renown  in  a  certain  occupation  is  supplied 
with  the  best  antidote  for  laziness. 

Agriculture,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and  all 
the  vocational  subjects  in  school  of  course  should  be  used 
primarily  to  give  skill  and  open  the  vocations  to  the  child. 


THE   SCHOOL   MUST   ATTACK   IDLENESS         211 

English  may  be  a  valuable  aid  also  in  teaching  the  occu- 
pations of  the  community.  Subjects  for  oral  and  written 
language  lessons  should  be  drawn  continually  from  this 
field. 

History  may  also  be  an  aid — by  showing  the  evolution 
of  industries,  the  development  of  occupations,  and  the 
relation  of  the  occupations  to  growth  and  welfare  of  the 
nation. 

A  list  of  the  necessary  occupations  during  the  war  as 
outlined  by  Provost  Marshal  Crowder  should  be  studied, 
and  a  list  of  the  unnecessary  ones  should  be  carefully 
examined  also. 

In  every  community  there  are  successful  men  and 
women  who  could  be  induced  to  come  to  the  school  and 
tell  the  pupils  how  they  succeeded  and  what  oppor- 
tunities their  several  vocations  offer  to  boys  and  girls. 
Farmers,  mechanics,  lawyers,  manufacturers,  engineers, 
etc.  — these  could  stir  the  youth  with  tales  of  heroism  and 
high  resolve. 

The  responsibility  of  the  school.  To  what  extent  is 
the  school  addressing  itself  to  this  problem  of  idleness  and 
vagrancy  ?  With  what  occupations  in  a  given  community 
should  the  school  cooperate?  What  is  the  greatest  enemy 
to  efficient  labor?  How  do  migrating  workers,  cheap 
lodgings,  poor  shelter,  ill  health,  poor  food,  brothels, 
lack  of  continued  responsibility,  hinder  effective  work  in 
the  community  ? 

These  are  questions  that  our  schools  and  colleges  should 
emphasize:  Has  any  study  been  made  of  the  relation 
between  school  courses  and  failures  in  school  on  the  one 
hand  and  with  idleness  and  vagrancy  on  the  other? 
Who  can  give  the  educational  history  of  the  idler  and 
loafer  and  throw  light  on  the  question?     Are  the  idlers 


212  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

as  a  rule  those  whose  mental  lives  were  not  suitable  to  or 
in  harmony  with  the  usual  class  routine  of  the  school? 

The  great  demand  for  labor  has  called  the  women  from 
the  home  and  the  schoolroom.  Large  numbers  of  idle 
unmarried  young  women  who  refrained  from  engaging 
in  any  productive  work  on  account  of  social  inhibitions 
now  find  all  barriers  removed.  They  have  as  a  result 
come  into  a  larger  freedon,  and  their  world  will  broaden 
still  more.  The  women,  therefore,  who  have  entered 
the  vocational  world  to  take  the  place  of  the  men  have 
come  to  stay.  During  the  war  it  was  a  patriotic  duty  to 
be  a  worker  in  the  nation.  But  now,  when  millions  of 
soldiers  are  being  returned  to  civil  life,  and  when  the 
supply  of  laborers  may  become  greater  than  the  demand, 
idleness  and  the  vagrancy  evil  will  become  even  more 
serious  unless  society  is  wiser  in  the  future  than  it  has 
been  in  the  past. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
IGNORANCE  A  FOE  TO  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP 
Preach  a  Crusade  against  Ignorance 

Preach  a  crusade  against  ignorance;  establish  and  prove  the 
law  for  educating  the  common  people.  Let  our  country  men  know 
that  the  people  alone  can  protect  us  against  these  evils,  and  that 
the  tax  which  will  be  paid  for  this  purpose  is  not  more  than  the 
thousandth  part  of  what  will  be  paid  to  kings,  priests,  and  nobles, 
who  will  rise  up  amongst  us  if  we  leave  the  people  in  ignorance. 

— Thomas  Jefferson 

So  otir  struggle  in  the  schools,  as  it  should  be  in  our  homes,  is 
against  ignorance,  the  old,  ancient,  inveterate  ignorance  with  which 
every  generation  is  bom  into  this  world,  the  ignorance  which  must 
be  first  overcome  and  then  enlightened  by  effort,  hard  effort,  repeated 
effort,  wisely  guided  eflfort,  not  alone  by  the  exertion  of  the  teacher, 
but  on  the  part  of  the  student  as  well,  that  our  young  recruits  may 
be  trained,  trained,  trained  into  an  alert,  disciplined,  irresistible 
army  of  knowledge. 

It  is  not  an  easy  task,  for  we  are  wrestling  not  against  flesh  and 
blood,  but  against  the  tmseen  powers  of  darkness,  darkness  intel- 
lectual and  darkness  moral.  It  is,  then,  our  part  in  the  "immortal 
conflict,"  ceaseless  and  strenuous,  "now  going  on  and  calling  for 
marvelous  vigilance"  more  loudly  than  ever.  It  is  no  place  for 
undisciplined  minds  or  wild  theorists,  still  less  for  idlers,  slouchers 
and  slackers,  and  even  less  for  false  prophets  dressed  up  in  the  uni- 
form of  the  army  of  knowledge. 

— Franklin  K.  Lane 

There  are  5,500,000  illiterates  in  the  United  States  and  700,000 
of  these  men  are  within  the  draft  age.  There  are,  no  doubt,  many 
good  Americans  who  cannot  read  or  write  the  EngUsh  language  and 
many  men  who  cannot  read  or  write  any  language.  But  in  a  democ- 
racy which  depends  upon  the  information  of  its  people  for  the  con- 
duct of  its  government,  there  must  be  universal  education  in  the 
language  of  its  country.  When  this  war  closes  we  cannot  carry  on  a 
campaign  against  tuberculosis  among  the  people  who  cannot  read 
today  the  rules  of  the  food  administration,  nor  will  we  be  able  to 
carry  on  a  campaign  to  make  the  schoolhouse  a  co-operative  mar- 
keting center  among  a  people  who  cannot  today  read  the  circulars 
of  the  Department  of  Agricvilture. 

— WooDROW  Wilson 

213 


214  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

The  problem  of  illiteracy.  The  war  has  shown  the 
leaders  of  America  how  careless  they  have  been  in  matters 
of  education  and  what  perils  threatened  the  nation  through 
ignorance  and  illiteracy.  There  were  in  the  United  States 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  5,516,163  persons  over  ten 
years  of  age  who  were  unable  to  read  or  write  any  lan- 
guage. Over  4,600,000  of  these  were  twenty  years  of 
age  or  more,  a  number  greater  than  the  population  of  the 
states  of  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Montana, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  and  Delaware. 

The  seriousness  of  the  dangers  to  America  from  such  a 
large  number  of  illiterates  did  not  dawn  ftdly  upon  the 
leaders  of  this  country  until  it  was  discovered  that  about 
700,000  men  of  draft  age  were  illiterate  and  that  nearly 
50,000  of  these  were  actually  in  the  army. 

Training  camps  for  soldiers  were  not  equipped  for  school 
work,  but  the  burden  of  teaching  the  men  to  read  the 
simplest  English  was  laid  upon  the  officers  or  others  in 
the  camps,  because  the  schools  had  been  too  poorly  sup- 
ported and  organized  to  prepare  the  people  to  meet  a  great 
emergency. 

Educational  problems.  Three  educational  problems 
confronted  the  nation,  and  the  teachers  everwhere  should 
at  all  times  be  conscious  of  them: 

I.  How  to  reach  all  children  oj  school  age  of  every  com- 
munity in  order  to  eliminate  illiteracy  from  the  next  and  all 
succeeding  generations.  Jefferson's  injunction  to  "preach 
a  crusade  against  ignorance"  is  more  necessary  to-day 
than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  America.  Most  states 
have  some  form  of  compulsory  school  law;  but  all  the 
children  are  not  yet  in  school.  Child  labor  is  still  an 
imsolved  problem. 


IGNORANCE   A  FOE  TO  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP      215 

2.  How  to  reach  the  adult  illiterates  of  this  generation. 
Even  before  the  war  many  states  had  become  aroused 
over  the  number  of  adult  men  and  women  who  were 
unable  to  read  and  write.  Night  schools,  and  in  many 
instances  day  schools,  have  been  organized  for  them. 
In  North  Carolina,  for  example,  schools  for  adults  have 
become  a  regular  part  of  the  state  public-school 
system. 

In  the  moonlight  schools  of  the  southern  states  father 
and  son  may  be  seen  attending  school  together — both 
illiterate  and  both  trjdng  to  learn  to  read  the  farm  paper 
or  the  Bible. 

3.  How  to  reach  aliens  and  children  of  aliens  and  instruct 
them  in  the  use  of  our  language,  our  laws,  our  institutions, 
and  our  ideals.  Tens  of  thousands  of  foreigners  have 
come  to  America  and  settled  in  communities  that  have 
become  more  foreign  than  American.  They  have  their 
schools.  But  their  children,  before  the  war,  were  in  some 
instances  not  even  taught  the  English  language.  They 
read  periodicals  published  in  some  foreign  language. 
They  sang  the  national  songs  of  their  native  land  and 
never  heard  in  school  the  American  patriotic  songs. 

"It  is  hardly  conceivable,  and  yet  it  appears  to  be  true, 
that  the  great  majority  of  otherwise  well-informed  Ameri- 
cans were  ignorant  of  these  conditions  until  they  learned 
that  whole  contingents  drafted  into  our  national  army 
could  understand  commands  and  orders  only  when  these 
were  expressed  in  a  foreign  language — sometimes  even 
in  the  language  of  our  principal  enemy"  (from  A  National 
Program  for  Education  issued  by  the  National  Education 
Association) . 

Examples  of  foreigners  in  the  army  learning  English. 
President  John  H.  Finley,  of  the  University  of  the  State 


2i6  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

of  New  York,  gives  a  picttire  of  foreigners  in  the  army 
learning  to  use  the  simple  mihtary  terms  in  English: 

In  the  mess  hall  where  I  sat  with  a  company  of  the  men  of  the 
National  Army,  a  few  small  groups  were  gathered  along  the  tables 
learning  English  under  the  tuition  of  some  of  their  comrades,  one 
of  whom  had  been  a  district  supervisor  in  a  neighboring  state  and 
another  a  theological  student.  In  one  of  those  groups  one  of  the 
exercises  for  the  evening  consisted  in  practicing  the  challenge  when 
on  sentry  duty. 

Each  pupil  of  the  group  (there  were  four  of  Italian  and  two  of 
Slavic  birth)  shouldered  in  turn  the  long-handled  stove  shovel  and 
aimed  it  at  the  teacher,  who  ran  along  the  side  of  the  room  as  if  to 
evade  the  guard.  The  pupU  called  out  in  broken  speech,  "Halt! 
Who  goes  there?"  The  answer  came  from  the  teacher,  "Friend." 
And  then,  in  as  yet  iminteUigible  English  (the  voice  of  innumerable 
ancestors  struggling  in  their  throats  to  pronounce  it),  the  words, 
"Advance  and  give  the  coimtersign."  So  are  those  of  confused 
tongues  learning  to  speak  the  language  of  the  land  they  have  been 
summoned  to  defend.  What  a  commentary  upon  our  educational 
shortcomings  that  in  the  days  of  peace  we  had  not  taught  these 
men,  who  have  been  here  long  enough  to  be  citizens  (and  tens  of 
thousands  of  their  brothers  with  them),  to  know  the  language  in 
which  our  history  is  written! 

Dangers  to  the  nation.  "Ignorance  is  not  a  cure  for 
anything."  It  is  a  hindrance  to  progress  and  a  constant 
menace  to  the  Uberties  of  a  people.  A  community  cannot 
progress  faster  than  pubUc  opinion  can  gxiide  it.  It 
falls  a  prey  easily  to  the  wiles  of  its  enemies,  and  it  may 
viciously  smite  the  hand  that  would  rescue  it.  Horace 
Mann  saw  this  when  the  fotmdation  of  our  modem  school 
system  was  laid,  and  the  patriotic  leaders  of  America 
have  ever  been  conscious  of  the  dead  weight  that  ignorance 
lays  upon  a  people. 

The  seriousness  of  this  danger  was  not  realized  until 
the  World  War  laid  bare  the  heart  of  the  world  and  pre- 
sented the  forces  of  evil  at  work.    As  has  been  said  before, 


IGNORANCE  A  FOE   TO   GOOD  CITIZENSHIP     217 

the  collapse  of  the  Italian  army  in  191 7  was  due  almost 
solely  to  the  ignorance  of  the  Italian  soldiers.  They  fell 
an  easy  prey  to  German  propaganda,  and  discontent  was 
worked  up  by  German  spies  who  knew  the  weak  centers 
of  the  nation. 

The  ignorance  of  the  Russians  made  them,  even  more 
than  the  Italians,  a  prey  to  German  propaganda.  The 
greatest  achievements  of  Germany  in  this  war  have  not 
been  the  result  of  great  military  power,  but  of  that  perfidi- 
ous propaganda  prejdng  upon  the  ignorance  and  credulity 
of  the  unsuspecting  imtil  they  were  caught  in  the  inex- 
tricable toils  of  its  wily  machinators,  who  boasted  of 
their  evil,  gloated  over  the  desolation  and  ruin  they  had 
spread,  and  rejoiced  over  the  confusion  that  came  to  the 
innocent  because,  for  the  time,  they  had  made  Prussian 
perfidy  triumph  over  the  Golden  Rule. 

Even  before  America  entered  the  war,  the  same  minions 
of  evil  were  at  work  in  this  nation,  and  the  German  rulers 
relied  upon  the  German  centers  in  America  and  the  Ger- 
man agents  to  keep  America  disorganized  and  unpre- 
pared even  to  defend  herself,  their  hope  for  ultimate 
success  being  based  upon  the  organized  propaganda  that 
was  spread  to  catch  the  ignorant,  the  illiterate,  and  the 
morally  stunted.  However,  the  American  leaders  imme- 
diately after  war  was  declared  began  an  educational  cam- 
paign through  publicity  bureaus,  lecture  courses,  and 
special  schools  in  the  army  and  in  selected  centers,  to 
offset  the  educational  campaign  of  the  Germans,  and  the 
fine  spirit  that  is  guiding  the  American  nation  and  the 
world  to-day  is  the  result  largely  of  this  educational 
campaign. 

These  dangers  should  arouse  the  teachers  of  every 
community  to  see  that  the  children  are  taught  and  that 
15 


2i8  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

adults  have  the  opportunity  not  only  to  leam  to  read,  but 
to  read  such  literature  as  will  make  them  better  Ameri- 
cans. They  should  study  current  periodicals  and  books 
from  the  library  with  this  end  in  mind. 

What  illiteracy  at  home  means.  Many  soldiers  who 
entered  the  army  illiterate  have  returned  literate.  It  was 
necessary  for  them  to  leam  to  read.  But  how  about  the 
large  nimiber  of  illiterates  at  home  and  those  who  will 
come  after  them? 

They  cannot  read  the  Bible  and  leam  for  themselves 
the  plan  of  salvation  and  instruct  their  children  in  the 
Siinday-school  lessons. 

They  cannot  read  the  health  bulletins  and  cooperate 
intelligently  with  the  health  authorities  in  eliminating 
tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  and  other  contagious  and 
infectious  diseases. 

They  cannot  read  the  children's  school  books  and  be 
an  aid  to  their  own  offspring  in  their  intellectual  develop- 
ment, and  in  this  respect  their  children  cannot  have 
equal  opportunities  with  other  children  whose  parents 
can  read. 

They  cannot  read  the  farm  papers  and  take  advantage 
of  all  improvements  in  agriculture  and  the  monthly 
suggestions  for  making  the  land  yield  the  best  and  pay 
the  most. 

They  cannot  have  the  same  advantage  intellectually  as 
the  literate  in  protecting  themselves  from  the  tricksters, 
the  patent-medicine  man,  the  street  hawkers,  the  wily 
peddlers,  and  that  host  of  sharpers  who  fatten  on  the 
ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  people. 

Misdirected  education  worse  than  illiteracy.  The  war 
has  taught  the  world  that  more  evil  may  result  from  the 
wrong  kind  of  education  than  from  illiteracy.     It  were 


IGNORANCE  A  FOE  TO   GOOD  CITIZENSHIP     219 

far  better  that  people  remained  in  simple  ignorance  than 
be  forced  to  develop  along  lines  at  variance  with  funda- 
mental principles  of  right  and  justice.  The  German 
army  is  noted  for  having  the  smallest  percentage  of 
illiteracy  of  any  army  in  the  world.  But  never  has  a 
nation,  in  ancient  or  modem  times,  shown  more  disregard 
for  the  sacred  rights  and  duties  of  a  human  being.  If 
half  the  stories  of  German  barbarities  are  true,  German 
ethics  and  education  are  a  curse  to  the  world.  In  Part  I 
it  was  shown  how  the  education  of  the  German  people 
was  forced  along  lines  that  made  that  nation  an  outlaw 
among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

However,  German  Kultur  carmot  be  destroyed  by 
ignorance.  An  illiterate  people  merely  afford  a  good  soil 
in  which  to  plant  German  Kultur.  The  only  remedy  is 
an  education  of  a  better  type.  Patriotic  German  Ameri- 
cans who  have  been  in  this  country  for  a  decade  or  more, 
and  the  result  of  American  propaganda,  are  proofs  of  this 
remedy.  "*^ 

It  is  the  duty  of  American  teachers,  therefore,  to  teach 
Americanism  first — a  sense  of  justice,  a  quickened  moral 
sense,  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  love  of  liberty  and 
fair  play,  law  and  order,  and  the  duties  of  a  citizen  to  his 
commimity. 

Teachers  in  the  past  have  said  that  it  makes  little 
difference  what  a  child  reads,  provided  it  learns  to  read; 
that  the  art  of  reading  is  the  great  aim.  We  know  now 
that  it  does  make  a  vast  difference  what  the  child  reads 
during  that  period  before  judgment  has  been  developed. 
Learning  to  read  is  absolutely  essential,  of  course,  but 
every  teacher  should  accompany  the  art  with  a  purpose. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  defect  in  teaching  is  its  purposeless 
character.     The  state  and  the  nation  therefore  should 


220  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

have  a  double  purpose  in  promoting  education:  (i)  to 
eliminate  illiteracy,  and  (2)  to  make  good  citizens. 
How  allied  countries  are  safeguarding  the  schools. 

In  spite  of  the  great  burden  of  financing  the  war,  England 
is  now  planning  for  educational  developments  "that 
would  have  been  deemed  Utopian  four  years  ago."  That 
nation  is  perfecting  measures  to  remedy  the  long  neglect 
of  the  children  by  encoiu-aging  the  establishment  of  nur- 
sery schools  for  all  children  under  six,  medical  inspection, 
physical  training,  and  a  reasonable  chance  of  living  a 
healthy  life.  Moreover,  it  has  become  aroused  over  the 
old  question  of  child  labor  and  the  neglect  of  the  youth 
of  high-school  age,  and  is  in  favor  of  a  national  system 
of  instruction  in  which  the  state  shall  pay  half  the  cost 
of  each  approved  school,  thus  preventing  any  unfair 
burden  of  local  taxes. 

Not  even  France,  so  brutally  hit  by  the  war,  is  neglect- 
ing her  schools.  At  tremendous  sacrifice  with  30,000 
teachers  called  to  the  colors,  she  has  kept  her  lower  schools 
in  full  operation.  Even  along  the  line  of  battle,  within 
the  sound  and  sometimes  within  the  range  of  the  artillery, 
the  schools  have  remained  open  and  at  work  (A  National 
Program  for  Education). 

The  following  message  from  war-stricken  France  was 
sent  to  America  through  President  Finley: 

Do  not  let  the  needs  of  the  hour  however  demanding,  or  its 
burdens  however  heavy,  or  its  perils  however  heart-breaking  make 
you  unmindful  of  the  defense  of  tomorrow,  of  those  disciplines 
through  which  an  individual  may  have  freedom,  through  which 
an  efficient  democracy  is  possible,  through  which  the  institutions  of 
civilization  can  be  perpetuated  and  strengthened.  Conserve,  endure 
taxation  and  privation,  suffer  and  sacrifice,  to  assure  those  whom 
you  have  brought  into  the  world  that  it  shall  be  not  only  a  safe  but 
also  a  happy  place  for  them. 


IGNORANCE   A   FOE  TO   GOOD  CITIZENSHIP       221 

We  must  educate  all  the  children.  We  have  in  the 
past  cared  too  little  for  the  education  of  those  children 
whose  parents  belong  to  the  tenant  class  in  the  country 
and  the  industrial  workers  of  the  towns  and  cities.  There 
are  too  many  people  still  living  in  this  country  who 
believe,  and  believe  intensely,  that  the  Lord  intended 
one  family  to  belong  to  a  ruling  class  and  another  to  a 
serving  class.  We  have  held  too  tenaciously  to  a  part 
of  that  ante-bellum  philosophy  that  would  make  an 
autocrat  of  the  landlord  or  capitaHst  and  a  servant  out 
of  the  tenant  or  laborer.  Wherever  the  autocrat  exists, 
whether  in  Germany  sitting  on  a  throne  or  in  America 
presiding  over  an  industry  or  a  plantation  or  as  the  head 
of  labor  organizations,  we  have  the  basis  of  tyraimy. 

"We  have  been  thinking  too  long  that  education  is  a 
sort  of  ambrosial  nectar  for  the  select  few."  Millions 
have  been  left  outside  the  pale.  Now  these  millions  have 
been  thinking  of  bread  riots  and  race  riots  and  strikes  and 
lockouts.  This  very  condition  produced  by  the  autocrat 
of  wealth  is  creating  another  autocrat  of  labor,  and  we 
have  already  had  the  two  in  this  country  lining  up  their 
forces  for  a  deadly  combat.  The  great  revolutions  in 
Russia  and  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary,  now  that  the 
autocrat  has  been  removed,  are  both  a  sign  and  a  prophecy. 

The  children  of  America  must  be  educated  in  a  way 
worthy  of  a  democratic  and  a  responsible  citizenship. 
Teachers,  therefore,  would  do  well  to  study  again  the 
motives  of  the  founders  of  our  Republic  and  take  an 
inventory  of  our  educational  achievements. 

According  to  statistics  compiled  from  no  less  than  386 
American  cities,  only  56  out  of  every  1,000  pupils  who 
begin  the  first  grade  of  the  elementary  school  complete 
the  high  school. 


222  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

The  teacher  might  with  profit  ask  whether,  if  the  schools 
had  been  doing  in  times  of  peace  what  the  government 
in  time  of  war  was  doing  to  train  the  men  and  women 
to  get  ready  to  make  democracy  triirmphant,  the  attend- 
ance in  school  would  be  better,  and  whether  education 
would  be  more  effective  and  illiteracy  less  glaring. 

Where  schools  have  failed.  The  courses  of  study  have 
been  designed  for  the  few  who  can  take  a  literary  educa- 
tion, and  the  number  that  learns  most  from  the  great 
physical  world  is  neglected.  The  boy  who  can  concen 
trate  his  powers  in  some  mechanical  work  is  not  given 
equal  credit  with  the  boy  who  is  good  in  the  liberal  arts. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  boy  who  can  concentrate  his 
mind  on  a  page  of  literature  ranks  highest,  as  a  rule,  in 
school. 

A  twenty-year-old  boy  in  a  certain  rural  district  applied 
for  admission  into  a  state  high  school.  He  desired  to 
study  only  mathematics,  history,  and  English.  He  had 
to  work  in  the  afternoons  and  could  remain  in  school 
only  one  year.  Therefore,  he  did  not  wish  to  take  Latin. 
But  the  teacher  refused  to  permit  him  to  enter  unless  he 
took  all  the  subjects  of  the  grade,  including  Latin.  Such 
a  teacher  is  a  relic  of  bygone  days  that  are  gone  never  to 
return,  let  us  hope.  What  a  pity  that  such  a  teacher 
has  floated  down  to  us  to-day  like  some  fragmentary 
detritus  from  an  ancient  geological  age!  How  many 
teachers  have  not  yet  realized  that  the  school  is  for  the 
child  and  that  any  organization  or  course  of  study  so 
arranged  as  to  exclude  a  child  has  no  right  to  exist. 

Moreover,  in  the  classification  and  promotion  of  pupils, 
teachers  and  supervisors  have  thought  more  of  the  organi- 
zation and  the  machinery  of  the  school  than  of  the  welfare 
of  the  individual  pupils,  or  rather,  they  have  thought  that 


IGNORANCE  A  FOE  TO  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP     223 

the  welfare  of  the  pupil  is  conserved  just  as  the  machinery 
of  the  school  is  perfected. 

A  few  years  ago  a  student  who  had  had  only  three 
years'  formal  schooling  before  entering  was  enrolled  in 
Trinity  College.  When  he  appeared  for  admission  into 
one  of  the  city  schools,  he  was  eighteen  years  of  age,  and 
the  principal  assigned  him  to  the  first  grade  because  he 
could  neither  read  nor  write.  But  he  stopped  after  a  few 
days  and  one  of  his  neighbors  taught  him  to  read  and 
write.  Once  more  he  applied  for  admission  into  this 
school,  and  this  time  he  was  put  in  the  second  grade. 
Again  he  stopped,  and  he  did  not  enter  any  school  again 
until  three  years  later,  when  he  entered  the  second  year 
of  the  high  school  from  which  he  graduated  in  three  years. 

It  was  not  the  school,  but  the  youth's  great  ambition, 
that  kept  him  from  remaining  an  illiterate.  This,  of 
course,  is  an  extreme  case,  but  how  many  students  have 
been  deprived  of  an  education  because  of  the  inelastic 
graded  system?  This  subject,  however,  has  been  dis- 
cussed more  in  detail  in  Part  II. 

Not  only  the  grading,  but  the  course  of  study,  may 
hinder  or  promote  educational  progress  in  a  community. 
How,  then,  may  the  school  improve  its  content  so  as  to 
justify  to  the  world  its  value  as  an  instrument  in  removing 
illiteracy,  in  promoting  industry,  in  creating  a  respect  for 
law  and  order,  in  quickening  the  moral  sense,  and  in 
molding  public  opinion  to  strive  against  the  great  evils 
of  idleness  and  vagrancy? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

LESSONS  DRAWN  FROM  COMMUNITY  AND 
NATIONAL  LIFE 

The  School  and  the  Community 

The  urgent  demand  for  the  production  and  proper  distribution 
of  food  and  national  resources  has  made  us  aware  of  the  close 
dependence  of  individual  on  individual  and  nation  on  nation.  The 
effort  to  keep  up  social  and  industrial  organizations,  in  spite  of  the 
withdrawal  of  men  for  the  army,  has  revealed  the  extent  to  which 
modem  life  has  become  complex  and  specialized. 

These  and  other  lessons  of  the  war  must  be  learned  quickly  if  we 
are  intelligently  and  successfully  to  defend  our  institutions.  When 
the  war  is  over,  we  must  apply  the  wisdom  which  we  have  acquired, 
in  purging  and  ennobling  the  life  of  the  world. 

In  these  vital  tasks  of  acquiring  a  broader  view  of  human  possi- 
bilities the  common  school  must  have  a  large  part.  I  urge  that 
teachers  and  other  school  officers  increase,  materially,  the  time 
and  attention  devoted  to  instruction  bearing  directly  on  the  prob- 
lems of  community  and  national  life. 

Such  a  plea  is  in  no  way  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  American  public 
education  or  existing  practices.  Nor  is  it  a  plea  for  a  temporary 
enlargement  of  the  school  program  appropriate  merely  to  the  period 
of  the  war. 

It  is  a  plea  for  the  realization,  in  public  education,  of  the  new 
emphasis  which  the  war  has  given  to  the  ideals  of  democracy  and 
to  the  broader  conceptions  of  national  life. 

— WooDROW  Wilson  in  a  letter  to 
school  officers,  August  23,  1917 

The  problem  of  the  school.  Since  the  school  is  one 
medium  through  which  the  child's  contact  with  the  out- 
side world  is  regulated,  the  teacher  should  be  acquainted 
with  the  strongest  forces  at  work  "in  the  great  human 
hive  outside  the  school."  Moreover,  the  course  of  study, 
which  is  really  a  social  product,  should  be  supplemented 
and  enriched  by  illustrations  and  topics  drawn  from  the 
present,  everyday  world. 

224 


COMMUNITY   AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  225 

How  to  utilize  these  agencies  so  as  to  direct  the  energies 
of  pupils  and  make  them  self-reliant  and  self-supporting — 
how  to  utilize  the  soil,  the  moisttire,  the  trees,  the  animals, 
the  air,  mechanical  forces,  occupational  agencies,  and  all 
the  physical  and  spiritual  forces  of  the  world  of  to-day 
in  the  development  of  an  individual  and  in  giving  proper 
direction  to  his  increasing  energies — this  is  the  problem 
of  the  school. 

The  teacher  should  remember  that  most  textbooks  are 
out  of  date.  They  are  written  after  life  has  been  lived. 
Therefore  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  contain  the  life  of 
the  present.  Hence  the  necessity  for  teachers  to  study 
the  present. 

Re-education  of  the  disabled.  The  problem  of  the 
disabled  is  more  acute  to-day  than  ever  before  because  of 
the  thousands  of  disabled  American  soldiers  who  are 
returning  home  unable  to  pursue  their  accustomed  voca- 
tions. The  national  government,  therefore,  is  perfecting 
ways  and  means  of  giving  the  blind  and  crippled  and 
otherwise  disabled  soldiers  a  new  education  that  will 
make  them  self-reliant.  The  old  school  is  inadequate  to 
these  new  demands  and  cannot  serve  as  a  guide.  Hence 
America  is  turning  to  Canada  and  to  France  and  to  Eng- 
land for  guidance.  In  those  countries,  where  the  number 
of  disabled  is  so  enormous  as  to  cause  the  greatest  concern 
for  the  future,  a  new  form  of  education  is  being  worked 
out.  All  the  vocations  are  studied  with  a  view  to  finding 
those  that  the  blind,  the  armless,  the  legless,  and  the 
nervous  wrecks  may  be  trained  to  enter  and  in  which 
they  may  find  joy  and  peace  and  a  life  made  happy 
because  of  a  service  they  may  perform. 

Even  before  the  war  the  schools  of  America  were  being 
directed  more  and  more  along  vocational  lines.     But  the 


226  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

lack  of  properly  trained  teachers,  and  of  a  knowledge  of 
what  was  needed,  and  of  funds  for  carrying  on  the  work, 
made  our  vocational  schools  fall  far  short  of  even  pre-war 
needs.  Aside  from  the  need  of  funds,  the  greatest  hin- 
drance perhaps  was  the  old  school  curriculum  that  seemed 
to  hold  the  teachers  to  the  past  and  directed  their  energies 
along  lines  that  were  dangerously  near  a  form  of  useless 
scholasticism.  Teachers  therefore  need  to  take  a  new 
view  of  the  curriculum  in  order  to  formulate  a  new  aim. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  ask  of  every  school  that  it  shall 
undertake  the  study  of  at  least  one  vocation  that  is  dis- 
tinct in  the  community. 

The  school  curriculum.  For  many  years  our  common- 
school  ouriculiun  has  been  growing  more  extensive  and 
complex.  We  have  passed  from  the  old  simple  group  — 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic — to  more  than  twenty- 
five  studies,  which  by  gradual  accumulation  have  held 
a  more  or  less  independent  place  in  our  courses  of  study. 
And  while  the  names  of  the  subjects  remain  the  same, 
the  content  is  constantly  changing  and  enlarging. 

Teachers  to-day  would  hardly  be  able  to  solve  the 
arithmetic  problems  of  a  century  ago.  They  would  be 
amused  at  the  contents  of  some  of  the  geographies  and 
histories.  They  could  not  use  the  science  that  was  taught 
a  himdred  years  ago  except  to  entertain  their  pupils 
with  its  strange  concepts.  Even  the  literature  that  was 
taught  in  school  when  our  great  grandfathers  Hved  is 
imHke  the  literature  of  to-day. 

This  is  merely  another  proof  of  the  assertion  that  the 
curricultim  is  always  in  a  process  of  being  made.  It  is 
the  product  of  a  society  which  is  constantly  undergoing 
changes,  and  the  teacher  who  holds  exclusively  to  the 
past  and  ignores  the  demands  of  the  present  is  out  of 


COMMUNITY   AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  227 

harmony  with  the  age.  But,  above  all,  such  a  teacher 
fails  to-day  to  utilize  material  that  may  be  exceedingly 
valuable  in  giving  the  youth  of  to-day  the  right  perspective 
of  life  and  that  may  aid  the  nation  in  the  education  of  the 
disabled  soldiers.  But  what  are  some  of  the  more  vital 
subjects  of  the  curriculum  that  need  to  be  enriched  with 
new  material  drawn  from  the  community? 

I.  The  old  course  in  nature  study  inadequate.  The  old 
course  in  nature  study  that  delighted  children  for  a  while 
by  simply  analyzing  a  leaf,  or  flower,  or  seed  should  be 
changed  to  bear  on  the  present  social  problem  of  produc- 
tion. Nature  study  in  the  past  has  been  too  pedantic 
or  academic.  Such  courses  as  "the  life  history  of  the 
morning-glory,"  which  at  one  time  occupied  a  whole 
semester,  is  an  unpatriotic  course. 

Food  production  has  given  a  new  purpose,  a  real  pur- 
pose, to  nature  study  and  agriculture,  and  it  should 
constitute  the  heart  of  all  outlined  courses  in  these  sub- 
jects. Every  syllabus,  therefore,  that  has  not  been 
remade  around  this  vital  subject  since  the  war  began  is 
open  to  the  charge  of  being  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
a  slacker  syllabus. 

Nature  study,  agriculture,  and  that  part  of  geography 
that  treats  of  soils,  plant  growth,  production,  and  dis- 
tribution of  food  may  be  combined  and  treated  under  one 
head — the  school  and  home  garden. 

United  States  School  Garden  Army.  The  formation 
of  the  United  States  School  Garden  Army,  inspired  by 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  P.  P.  Claxton, 
and  recently  called  into  activity  by  the  President,  is  an 
attempt  to  mobilize  the  children  to  help  meet  a  food 
emergency  in  order  that  the  future  may  be  safeguarded 
against  want. 


228  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

There  is  no  excuse  for  the  failure  of  any  school  in  Amer- 
ica to  cooperate  in  this  movement.  The  United  States 
has  been  divided  into  five  sections,  namely,  Northeastern 
States,  Southeastern  States,  Central  States,  Southwestern 
States,  and  Western  States,  under  regional  directors. 

Since  the  close  of  the  great  war,  nearly  two  million 
children  have  already  enrolled  in  the  School  Garden  Army, 
according  to  reports  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  as  follows:  Northeastern  States,  400,000; 
Southeastern  States,  250,000;  Central  States,  600,000; 
Southwestern  States,  500,000;  and  Western  States, 
150,000. 

In  every  county  of  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union 
there  are  men  and  women  who  are  able  to  aid  the  teacher 
in  planning  a  school  garden.  What  is  good  for  one  section 
is  not  good  for  another  section.  But  the  teacher  has  at 
hand  sufficient  htiman  agencies  to  help  in  this  matter. 

The  School  Garden  Army  has  already  begun  to  mobilize. 
It  is  only  a  part,  however,  of  that  larger  movement  to 
encourage  the  right  kind  of  instruction  in  food  production. 
It  is  not  to  take  the  place  of  school  gardens,  but  to  serve 
as  a  means  of  organizing  the  children  for  still  greater 
service  along  these  lines.  The  great  question  for  each 
teacher  to  answer  is  this:  How  is  my  school  aiding  in 
food  production? 

Enlistment  sheets  and  cards,  as  well  as  the  insignia, 
will  be  furnished  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Washington,  D.C.  Fiuther  information  may  be 
had  on  application  to  the  Bureau  of  Education,  118 
Pension  Building,  Washington,  D.C. 

The  accomplishments  of  the  School  Garden  Army 
during  the  war  were  remarkable.  Twenty  thousand 
acres  of  unproductive  lots  were  covered  with  productive 


COMMUNITY  AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  229 

gardens,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  parents  became  inter- 
ested in  the  school  garden  movement,  and  over  fifty 
thousand  teachers  received  valuable  instruction  in  gar- 
dening through  leaflets  sent  out  from  the  National 
Bureau  of  Education.  No  other  movement  in  history 
promises  so  much  in  aiding  the  "back-to-the-soil" 
movement  as  this. 

Miss  Julia  C.  Lathrop  says  of  the  Garden  Beautiful : 

Every  child  has  a  right  to  a  garden.  The  art  of  the  vegetable 
garden  has  never  been  cherished  in  this  country  and  it  will  be  a 
great  gain  if  we  learn  something  of  the  nicety  of  culture  which  the 
exquisite  gardeners  of  the  world  from  Belgium  to  Japan  so  well 
understand. 

As  the  school  garden  movement  develops  I  trust  that  not  only 
food  but  flowers  will  be  produced,  because  "the  beautiful  is  as  useful 
as  the  useful."  A  generation  growing  up  with  a  real  skill  in  gar- 
dening will  possess  additional  safeguards  for  vigorous  health  and 
another  source  of  pleasure  and  recreation. 

2.  The  teaching  of  agriculture  inadequate.  The  Smith- 
Hughes  Act  (191 7)  provides  federal  aid  for  teaching 
agriculture  and  certain  other  vocational  subjects.  In 
some  states,  however,  the  nature  of  the  agriculture 
taught  is  so  bookish  and  so  impracticable  that  not  nearly 
all  of  the  federal  apportionment  was  applied  for  in  19 18. 
The  schools  could  not  meet  the  requirements,  or,  if  they 
could,  teachers  and  patrons  knew  too  little  about  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  or  they  were  too  indifferent  to  bestir 
themselves. 

One  demand  that  has  not  been  successfully  met  is  in 
the  making  of  provisions  for  a  school  farm  doing  general 
farm  work  under  supervision  and  carrying  on  a  specific 
home  project.  It  seems  that,  after  years  of  experience 
in  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  the  home  project  plan 
offers  the  fewest  obstacles  and  the  greatest  possibilities. 


230  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Professor  David  Snedden,  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  suggests  that  the  most  successful  as  well  as 
the  most  valuable  plan  of  teaching  is  the  "problem- 
project  plan,"  involving  a  specific  problem,  for  example,  in 
crop  production,  soil  management,  dairy  production,  or 
farm  management. 

3.  Animal  husbandry.  It  has  been  only  within  the  past 
few  decades  that  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals  has  received  much  support  from  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  people.  Veterinary  surgery  is  a  modem  pro- 
fession. This  war,  however,  has  demonstrated  the  neces- 
sity for  greater  care  and  pains  in  dealing  with  animals. 
In  former  wars  the  horse  was  merely  an  incident,  and 
no  attention  was  paid  to  him  if  he  was  wounded. 

However,  the  supply  of  useful  animals  is  rapidly 
decreasing.  During  the  war  hospitals  for  wounded  horses 
were  built,  and  every  contending  army  had  its  animal 
hospital  staff  with  a  supply  of  veterinarians  aided  by 
civilian  auxiliaries  after  the  manner  of  the  Red  Cross. 

Such  precautions  are  extending  to  other  useful  animals, 
and  one  subject  every  child  should  study  in  school  is  this: 
How  to  prevent  and  cure  diseases  of  animals.  The  pig 
clubs,  the  poultry  clubs,  and  the  sheep  clubs  are  aiding 
somewhat  at  this  point.  Extension  agents  have  learned 
to  preserve  the  health  of  animals  and  to  improve  the 
stock,  and  there  is  no  child  in  either  city  or  the  country 
who  shotild  be  wholly  ignorant  of  these  things.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  making  the  extension  work  a  part  of  the 
school  work. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  animals  for  boys  and  girls  to 
study  is  the  cow.  There  are  not  enough  milch  cows  in 
the  world  to-day,  and  milk  is  so  high  in  cities  that  poor 
people  are  unable  to  buy  it  for  their  babies.     Thousands 


COMMUNITY   AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  231 

of  children  are  undernourished  because  of  the  scarcity 
and  high  price  of  milk.  Every  school,  therefore,  espe- 
cially in  the  villages  and  rural  districts,  should  seek  to 
increase  milk  production  by  preserving  the  cows,  by 
studying  how  to  provide  food  for  them,  by  studying  the 
best  type  of  milch  cow,  and  by  encouraging  the  preserva- 
tion of  all  the  calves  that  give  promise  of  making  good 
milch  cows. 

The  supply  of  fats  for  the  world's  needs  has  been  con- 
siderably reduced.  The  devastated  areas  of  Europe 
must  be  restocked  with  fat-producing  animals  from  Amer- 
ica and  other  countries  not  wrecked  by  this  war,  and  the 
school  can  be  of  great  aid  to  humanity  by  laying  greater 
emphasis  on  animal  husbandry. 

These  are  topics  that  children  of  the  cities  as  well  as 
the  rural  districts  may  study  with  profit.  From  the 
geographies  they  may  learn  the  great  food  centers. 
Where  are  to  be  found  the  best  milch  cows,  the  best 
gardens,  the  largest  supply  of  food-giving  animals,  etc.? 
What  is  the  cost  of  distribution?  Who  is  the  profiteer 
and  why  is  he  denounced  so  thoroughly  to-day? 

4.  The  old  method  of  treating  geography  inadequate. 
The  world  is  changing  so  fast  to-day  that  the  teacher  who 
confines  himself  or  herself  to  the  geography  texts  and 
follows  the  book  page  by  page  without  drawing  material 
from  the  present-day  world  is  a  slacker. 

Most  geographies  treat  of  the  industries  of  the  people. 
But  none  can  treat  of  the  industries  of  the  home  com- 
munity as  fully  as  is  necessary  for  the  children.  Only 
the  teacher  can  do  this.  The  Bureau  of  Education  has 
been  publishing  a  series  of  Lessons  in  Community  and 
National  Life  as  an  aid  and  a  guide  to  teachers.  These 
should  be  studied.     In  order  to  illustrate  the  need  of 


232  EDUCATION   FOR  DEMOCRACY 

drawing  a  great  deal  of  the  geography  material  from  the 
community,  the  topic  of  the  "Flour  Mill"  is  presented. 

A  boy  visits  a  flour  mill  and  learns  what  he  never  before 
had  dreamed,  that  a  whole  army  of  experts  is  employed 
in  the  industry — farmers  who  produce  the  wheat,  railway 
operators  who  transport  it  to  mill  and  to  market,  great 
storage  plants  or  elevators,  experts  in  manufacturing 
the  grain  in  the  mill,  expert  salesmen  and  accountants, 
wholesale  and  retail  grocers,  bankers  who  supply  the 
money  for  large  business,  the  United  States  mail  that 
facilitates  business — all  these  cooperate  in  such  a  way 
that  society  is  bound  together  by  business  ties. 

Skill  is  needed  in  the  business.  But  in  order  that 
society  may  hold  together  harmoniously,  character  and 
integrity  must  be  found  in  every  unit.  In  this  vast 
circle  of  industries,  let  one  man  be  dishonest,  or  a  con- 
scienceless autocrat,  and  he  is  likely  to  wreck  the 
whole.  Moreover,  let  one  man  do  shoddy  work  or  be  in- 
efficient, and  the  whole  business  may  fail.  Thus  one  large 
industry  shows  the  need  of  honesty,  industry,  skill,  obedi- 
ence to  order,  and  right  and  justice  in  the  management. 

Teachers  may  find  other  types  in  the  community. 
The  cattle  industry  is  a  good  one.  Children  will  be 
greatly  interested  in  following  the  cow  from  the  pasture 
to  the  stockyards,  then  to  the  several  markets  where 
shoes,  beef,  and  other  products  are  produced,  and  in  the 
final  distribution  and  consimiption  of  these  articles. 
The  cotton  mill  is  another  good  topic.  Wool,  coal,  and 
iron  may  be  treated  in  a  similar  way.  In  each  case, 
however,  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  see  that  three  forces 
above  all  others  hold  society  together  and  make  for 
happiness  in  the  world — efficient  workmanship,  personal 
integrity,  and  good  management. 


COMMUNITY  AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  233 

The  World  War  was  the  result  of  a  lack  of  the  second 
element.  Never  before  has  mankind  reached  such  a 
state  of  efficiency.  Never  before  has  there  been  such 
cooperation  and  such  interdependence.  And  at  this 
time,  when  the  growth  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  should 
keep  pace  with  the  development  of  efficient  workmanship 
and  the  increasing  interdependence  of  nations,  one  nation 
lacking  in  integrity  threw  the  world  out  of  joint  and  pro- 
duced vast  disorder.  We  have  no  clearer  lesson  of  the 
helplessness  of  mankind  in  the  midst  of  industrial  effi- 
ciency alone.  The  bond  that  holds  society  together  is 
after  all  a  moral  bond. 

5.  The  old  domestic  science  inadequate.  The  war  has 
demonstrated  that  much  of  the  domestic  science  taught 
in  school  was  too  impractical  and  did  not  reach  those 
people  who  needed  it  most.  But  it  has  been  proved  that 
even  a  teacher  in  a  one-room  school  can  teach  domestic 
science  in  a  practical  way  that  carries  new  life  into  the 
school. 

The  homes  may  be  used,  mothers  will  cooperate,  and 
the  results  of  the  work  at  home  may  be  brought  into  the 
school  and  discussed  and  made  the  basis  even  of  language 
work.  Schools  may  have  a  minimum  equipment,  such  as 
an  oil  stove  for  cooking  and  a  few  supplies  for  sewing. 
The  one  great  trouble  in  the  past  has  been  that  domestic 
science  has  been  taught  on  the  plane  of  the  more  pros- 
perous families  in  order  to  enlist  their  cooperation. 
Since  their  children  give  little  or  no  aid  in  cooking  and 
sewing  at  home,  the  home  life  in  many  cases  has  not 
even  been  affected  by  this  subject,  and  those  most  needing 
it  have  been  neglected. 

Many  home-economics  teachers  in  England  lost  their 
positions  as  a  result  of  the  war.    This  has  proved  a 

16 


234        EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

blessing,  for  many  began  catering  as  a  profession,  and  as 
a  result  they  aided  the  nation  in  making  food  substitutes, 
and  the  whole  kitchen  economics  has  been  revolutionized. 

American  families  were  asked  to  modify  many  of  their 
domestic  habits,  and  teachers  in  the  future  must  give 
greater  aid  to  the  home  at  this  most  vital  point. 

Many  features  of  the  Junior  Red  Cross  should  be  con- 
tinued in  the  schools.  Knitting  and  sewing  for  the  sol- 
diers had  a  distinct  social  as  well  as  practical  value. 
But  this  work  should  convince  the  teachers  that  sewing 
and  "first  aids"  in  preserving  health  may  become  per- 
manent features  of  every  school  and  a  vital  factor  in  the 
regeneration  of  a  community. 

6.  The  old  courses  in  civics  inadequate.  Since  the  war 
began,  many  states  have  enacted  laws  directing  that  pro- 
visions must  be  made  in  the  public  schools  for  training 
in  the  duties  of  citizenship.  Seventeen  states  are  requir- 
ing civics  of  all  high-school  pupils,  and  in  every  state,  per- 
haps, graded  courses  in  civics  have  been  outlined  for  the 
elementary  grades. 

The  terms  used  to  indicate  the  phase  of  civics  taught 
are  "Training  in  Citizenship,"  "Municipal  Affairs  and 
Social  Industries,"  "Community  Sanitation,"  "Current 
or  Local  History,"  "Community  Civics,"  etc.  In  each 
case  the  idea  is  to  draw  the  lessons  from  community  and 
national  life. 

Although  there  was  already  an  awakening  along  this 
line  before  the  war,  it  was  found  exceedingly  difficult 
in  places  to  arouse  the  people  during  the  war  and  enlist 
their  cooperation.  A  writer  in  the  National  Municipal 
Review  says  that  from  2  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  of  the 
people  take  an  active  interest  in  public  affairs;  from 
10  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  are  actively  interested  because 


COMMUNITY   AND   NATIONAL  LIFE  235 

they  want  something  for  themselves;  and  there  remains 
70  per  cent  of  indifference.  How  many  people  fail  to  take 
any  interest  in  election  in  every  state? 

Some  of  the  larger  cities  are  taking  steps  which  should 
be  followed  by  others.  Newark,  Cincinnati,  and  New 
Orleans,  especially,  publish  pamphlets  dealing  with  their 
own  history,  community  life,  and  public  affairs. 

The  Citizens'  Book  of  Cincinnati  and  The  New  Orleans 
Book  have  attracted  attention.  The  general  plan  is  to 
compile  in  one  volume  the  history  of  the  city,  statistics  of 
population,  and  the  facts  about  health,  police,  fire  preven- 
tion and  extinction,  education,  art,  music,  and  recreation. 

Every  town  and  village  could  follow  this  plan  and 
modify  it  to  suit  local  conditions. 

The  first  essential  is  a  sense  of  the  importance  of  one's 
duty  toward  the  community  and  the  government,  and  a 
willingness  to  contribute  one's  proper  share.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  looking  upon  the  pupil  as  a  citizen  while  he 
is  in  school  and  giving  him  an  opportunity  to  render 
service  to  the  community  by  drawing  much  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  for  the  school  from  the  community. 

A  new  interest  has  been  created  along  this  line  since 
war  was  declared.  Many  new  textbooks  have  been 
published.  They  are  being  published  even  now.  Teach- 
ers should  select  as  a  guide  one  in  which  directions  are 
given  for  arousing  civic  consciousness  in  the  lower  grades. 
Then  a  formal  text  for  pupils  may  be  used  after  about  the 
sixth  or  seventh  grade. 

But  the  community  should  be  the  basis  even  for  this 
subject.  The  work  may  center  around  some  community 
interest.  An  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  first  formed  the 
basis  for  the  work  in  one  community.  In  Roanoke 
Rapids,  North  Carolina,  malaria  was  so  severe  that  the 


236  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

national  government,  the  state  government,  and  the  local 
government  united  in  their  efforts  to  rid  the  community 
of  the  dangerous  mosquitoes.  The  school  followed  every 
step  in  the  investigation  and  made  it  the  leading  subject 
in  school  while  the  survey  was  being  made.  The  fact 
that  malarial  victims  were  reduced  from  1 7  per  cent  of  the 
population  to  less  than  2  per  cent  is  ample  justification 
for  the  interest  manifested  by  the  pupils. 

The  water  supply,  the  milk  supply,  food  products,  the 
building  and  loan  association,  the  preservation  of  law  and 
order,  the  work  of  boards  of  charity  and  employment 
bureaus,  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  the  community 
to  guarantee  a  deep  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
From  the  study  of  the  immediate  community  the  interest 
may  be  carried  over  to  the  study  of  government,  and  by 
the  last  year  of  high  school  students  will  be  prepared  to 
understand  the  functions  of  government.  But  first  of 
all  the  teacher  must  understand  them. 

So  many  books  are  appearing  just  at  this  time  that  in 
every  community  of  teachers  a  committee  should  be 
appointed  to  study  the  new  books  as  they  appear  and  make 
reports  to  the  teachers.  A  teachers'  library  on  civics 
might  thus  be  accumulated. 

7.  How  other  subjects  may  be  enriched.  Nature  study, 
agriculture,  geography,  health,  and  domestic  economy 
were  perhaps  affected  most  by  the  war.  But  there  is  no 
subject  that  was  not  affected  and  that  may  not  be  enriched 
by  the  use  of  material  drawn  from  the  community. 

The  history  of  the  community  could  be  studied  and 
written  by  the  school.  It  may  include  traditions  and 
legends,  the  story  of  the  first  settlement,  lives  of  prominent 
men  who  have  made  the  community  and  who  have  gone 
from  the  community,  the  history  of  industries,  what  the 


COMMUNITY   AND   NATIONAL   LIFE  237 

community  did  toward  winning  the  war,  the  prosperity 
of  the  people,  the  history  of  the  school,  the  churches,  and 
places  of  historic  interest  in  or  near  the  community. 

Subjects  for  composition  may  be  derived  from  the 
community :  why  Mr.  B  is  a  successful  farmer,  how  Mr.  A 
cultivated  wheat  or  cotton,  how  Mr.  C  manages  a  dairy, 
how  Mrs.  D  prepared  the  best  bread,  or  made  the  best 
quilt,  or  prepared  the  best  jelly  for  the  fair,  how  a  city  is 
governed,  how  a  state  is  governed,  how  a  store  is  con- 
ducted, and  the  moral  forces  of  a  community. 

Many  of  the  problems  of  arithmetic  may  be  drawn 
from  the  community. 

1.  How  much  profit  is  made  on  an  acre  of  cotton  or 
wheat  or  com? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  governing  a  town  or  city  and  the 
source  of  revenue?  Is  it  running  into  debt?  Can  it  do 
still  more  for  the  community? 

3.  What  is  the  cost  of  building  streets  or  roads? 

4.  What  is  the  cost  of  putting  running  water  into  the 
homes  of  rural  districts? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  to  a  community  if  twenty  working 
men  are  sick  one  month  with  typhoid  fever? 

6.  Is  the  building  and  loan  association  beneficial? 

7.  How  much  is  saved  in  a  year  by  economy  if  20,000,- 
000  homes  save  one  slice  of  bread  a  day  and  each  slice 
weighs  one  ounce? 

8.  How  much  labor  will  it  require  to  replace  the  wealth 
that  is  lost  by  fires  if  $100,000,000  worth  of  property  is 
destroyed  annually.  Make  the  computation  on  the  av- 
erage salary  of  laborers  in  the  community. 

9.  What  does  it  cost  every  man  and  woman  in  the 
United  States  if  $600,000,000  is  lost  annually  from  care- 
lessness and  neglect  ? 


238  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

10.  How  much  per  pupil  enrolled  does  it  cost  to  run 
the  schools  of  the  city  ?  How  much  are  other  communities 
or  other  cities  of  like  size  paying  for  pupils  enrolled  ? 

11.  How  much  does  it  cost  to  maintain  law  and  order 
in  the  community?  Then  what  could  be  saved  in  money 
alone  if  all  people  lived  by  the  Golden  Rule? 

12.  How  long  would  it  take  a  renter  to  buy  the  land 
he  cultivates  if  he  borrowed  the  money  from  the  Federal 
Land  Bank  and  paid  on  the  loan  only  the  amount  of  the 
rents  each  year? 

The  literature  might  embrace  the  speeches  of  President 
Wilson,  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  and  other  great  leaders  of  the 
day.  French  schools  teach  President  Wilson's  speeches 
and  the  aims  of  the  war,  and  many  city  schools  of  America 
use  them  also.  Moreover,  the  literature  might  include 
good  editorials,  strong  descriptive  articles,  or  good  maga- 
zine stories  taken  from  current  literature. 

Even  in  teaching  rhetoric  many  instructors  use  para- 
graphs of  good  editorial  writers  as  a  guide. 

As  was  said  in  chapter  xv,  teachers  should  study  the 
vocations  of  the  community  and  draw  from  them  as  much 
material  as  possible.  Factories,  stores,  shops,  farms, 
commerce,  all  have  something  of  value  for  the  school. 
If  the  nation  finds  in  them  a  means  of  reclaiming  the  dis- 
abled soldiers,  teachers  may  find  in  them  a  means  of 
reclaiming  the  wayward  youth  or  of  stimulating  to  greater 
activity  the  pupils  of  the  school. 

In  these  and  many  other  ways  a  live  teacher  may  make 
the  old  subject  in  school  glow  with  a  new  life,  for  life 
creates  life,  and  life  more  abundantly  is  the  great  need  of 
the  school. 


PART  IV 
AIDS   TO  TEACHERS 


The  Changing  Curriculimi 

No  man,  or  group  of  men,  however  learned  and  expert,  can  draw 
up  an  educational  curriculum  that  shall  be  good  for  all  times  and 
places.  With  changes  in  social,  moral,  and  industrial  conditions, 
new  values  appear  and  old  values  disintegrate  and  often  vanish 
entirely.  The  basis  of  the  curriculum  changes  continually  with 
the  progress  of  society.  The  children  of  to-day  need  to  know  many 
things  which  were  unknown  to  anybody  a  generation  ago;  they 
need  to  have  certain  kinds  of  skill  to  form  certain  habits  of  life 
and  of  thought  that  could  not  have  been  anticipated  by  their  fathers, 
and  even  the  virtues  change  in  their  content  if  not  in  their  basic 
principles. 

— Miller,  Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  LIBRARY  AND  GOVERNMENT  AIDS 

THE    LIBRARY 

The  Wise  Attitude  of  a  Teacher 

Every  teacher  has  methods  and  devices  of  presenting  material  to 
his  or  her  classes.  The  experienced  teacher  behaves  skillfully  in  the 
presence  of  a  class  because  all  the  details  of  procedure  have  been 
tried,  and  those  which  proved  successful  have  been  retained.  The 
inexperienced  teacher  is  clumsy  in  his  methods,  just  as  is  any  novice 
in  dealing  with  an  unmastered  social  situation. 

There  is  no  necessity  of  being  one-sided  in  this  matter.  The 
successful  teacher  will  ultimately  have  both  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  and  methods  and  devices  of  presenting  the  subject 
matter.  If  he  is  lacking  in  either,  he  will  be  in  just  that  degree 
inefficient.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  properly  balanced  appre- 
ciation of  both  is  the  sane  and  wise  attitude  to  assume. 
— Charles  H.  Judd,  Introduction  to  the 

Scientific  Study  of  Education 

The  library  movement.  How  many  teachers  in  rural 
schools  or  in  city  schools  know  how  to  use  a  library? 
How  many  know  what  books  are  most  helpful  in  teaching 
children  of  the  lower  grades  and  in  supplementing  the 
subjects  of  the  grammar-  and  high-school  grades  ?  These 
questions  have  been  asked  at  a  number  of  teachers' 
meetings,  and  the  lack  of  training  in  or  attention  to  this 
subject  seems  to  be  serious. 

In  every  town  or  city  of  any  considerable  size  a  library, 
in  all  probabiHty,  may  be  fotmd  in  or  convenient  to  the 
school.  In  most  of  the  states  provisions  have  been  made 
for  supplying  small  but  fairly  well-selected  libraries  to  the 
rural  schools.  The  library  movement  is  a  result  of  the 
social  presstu"e  on  the  school  to  make  Hfe  more  endurable 

241 


242  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

and  instruction  more  profitable  in  the  school.  However, 
it  came  before  the  teaching  profession  generally  was 
ready  to  use  it.  Normal  schools,  teacher-training  classes, 
institutes,  and  reading  circles  have  not  yet  afforded  suffi- 
cient training  to  give  teachers  a  large  idea  as  to  what  books 
are  helpful,  how  to  select  books  and  periodicals  for  differ- 
ent grades  of  children,  and  how  to  use  them  both  in  the 
classroom  and  in  the  community. 

Every  association  either  of  city  teachers  or  of  rural 
teachers  might  have  a  permanent  committee  to  study  the 
school  library  and  make  recommendations  each  year  as 
to  the  best  books  to  be  used  in  the  grades,  what  new 
literature  is  available,  and  where  it  can  be  found. 

How  a  librarian  may  aid.  A  librarian  may  be  of  the 
greatest  aid  to  the  teachers  in  many  ways.  The  librarian 
of  one  of  the  Seattle  schools,  says  Popular  Education,  has 
a  cardcase  at  one  end  of  the  room,  brimful  of  teachers' 
helps,  which  she  has  prepared  with  the  aid  of  a  large 
lever-operating  paper  knife  on  her  desk. 

With  this  knife  she  cuts  from  magazines  and  books 
collected  from  many  sources  pictures,  articles,  poems, 
jingles,  rimes,  songs,  games,  and  every  other  bit  of 
material  that  teachers  might  need  as  supplements  to  their 
daily  lessons  or  special  programs.  All  the  material  is 
moimted  on  beautifully  color-toned  cards  and  looks  as  if 
it  might  have  been  prepared  by  a  commercial  house 
making  a  specialty  of  such  work. 

This  material  is  classified  according  to  coimtries.  A 
teacher  studying  Italy,  for  example,  can  take  from  these 
cardcases  to  her  schoolroom  picttu-es  illustrating  almost 
any  phase  of  the  subject  she  wishes  to  present,  and  work 
to  supply  almost  any  need  she  may  have.  This  material 
is  returned  at  a  certain  time  just  as  books  would  be. 


THE   LIBRARY   AND   GOVERNMENT  AIDS        243 

Another  classification  is  made  for  holiday  and  special 
programs.  Any  teacher,  whether  of  private,  Sunday,  or 
public  school,  playground  or  settlement  worker,  may  sit 
down  at  these  cases  and  select  work  for  a  varied  program 
or  for  a  special  day  or  season  in  a  very  short  time.  It  is 
then  ready  to  pass  out  to  the  children  without  further 
work  by  the  teacher  and  in  a  form  which  suggests  care 
in  handling  to  the  child  who  receives  it. 

One  city  superintendent  keeps  the  current  magazines 
circulating  among  his  teachers  in  the  following  manner: 
A  slip  containing  reference  to  important  articles  is  pasted 
on  the  front  of  each  periodical  and  it  is  turned  over  to 
a  teacher  at  once.  "She  reads  it,  or  such  portions  of  it 
as  may  be  of  interest  to  her,  writes  her  name  in  the  space 
indicated,  and  passes  it  on  to  another  teacher,  who  in  turn 
does  the  same  thing.  This  enables  us,"  says  the  super- 
intendent, "to  be  sure  that  the  magazines  are  in  circu- 
lation. At  the  end  of  the  year  when  they  are  returned 
to  the  office  I  can  start  them  all  over  again  among  those 
teachers  that  have  not  read  them." 

In  certain  live  rural  districts  teachers  send  marked 
copies  of  articles  foimd  in  the  current  periodicals  to 
patrons  of  the  community,  requesting  -that  they  give  the 
teacher  their  opinion  of  the  value  of  the  articles.  Some- 
times these  articles  deal  with  farming,  or  improvements 
inmachinery,  poultry  raising,  or  matters  of  general  interest. 

In  certain  schools  in  which  no  regular  librarian  is 
employed,  the  principal  provides  the  teachers  with  a  list  of 
books  suitable  for  use  in  the  respective  grades.  In  addi- 
tion the  teachers  are  asked  to  make  a  list,  not  a  library 
list  but  one  which  could  be  of  use  to  the  teacher  or  the 
pupils,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  secure  such  lists  during 
the  year. 


244  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Many  schools  have  a  pupils'  reading  circle.  Sometimes 
its  work  is  outlined  by  the  state  department  of  education. 
But  even  this  is  of  small  value  unless  the  teacher  in  charge 
understands  the  value  of  the  books  and  how  to  direct 
the  child's  reading. 

The  need  in  the  rural  schools.  It  frequently  happens 
in  small  districts  where  teachers  do  not  appreciate  the 
value  of  the  library  that  the  books  are  defaced  or  lost. 
In  some  schools  coming  under  the  writer's  notice  no 
records  of  the  books  belonging  to  the  library  could  be 
found;  in  others  not  a  book  had  been  in  use  in  the  school 
during  the  teacher's  term  of  service  in  the  community. 

Most  states  have  the  traveling  library  in  one  form  or 
another.  But  how  many  teachers  know  the  needs  of  the 
pupils  and  the  young  people  of  the  community  well 
enough  to  make  an  intelligent  selection  of  books? 

Teaching  will  never  become  what  it  should  be  until 
teachers  know  how  to  use  the  library.  This  is  true  of  the 
city  schools  as  well  as  of  the  rural  schools.  Knowing  how 
to  go  to  the  library  for  assistance  is  the  first  and  simplest 
evidence  that  the  teacher  has  skill  and  initiative  sufficient 
to  go  beyond  the  textbook  for  educative  material.  If  the 
teacher  has  never  learned  how  to  correlate  the  library 
with  the  textbook,  how  can  anyone  expect  that  same 
teacher  to  perform  the  more  difficult  task  of  correlating 
urban  or  rural  activities  with  school  activities?  The 
shortest  step  for  the  teacher  to  take  is  from  the  classroom 
to  the  library.  The  longer  step  is  from  the  schoolroom 
to  the  community.  It  is  time  that  teachers  everywhere 
were  taking  their  first  step  in  order  that  they  may  be 
able  to  take  the  longer  step  with  confidence. 

Normal  schools  and  teacher-training  departments  in 
colleges  and  universities  are  recognizing,  more  and  more, 


THE  LIBRARY  AND   GOVERNMENT   AIDS        245 

the  importance  of  this  work  and  are  providing  library 
courses  for  teachers.  Moreover,  recommendations  are 
now  being  made  in  some  states  which,  if  carried  out,  will 
require  of  teachers  a  ten  weeks'  course  in  the  selection, 
care,  and  use  of  books,  intended  to  put  teachers  in  sym- 
pathetic touch  with  the  use  of  the  library. 

GOVERNMENT   AIDS 

Aids  to  the  study  of  the  war.  A  notable  feature  of 
the  recent  World  War  was  the  extensive  appeal  to  public 
opinion  by  all  the  nations  involved.  There  is  no  excuse, 
therefore,  for  ignorance,  on  the  part  of  any  portion  of  our 
population,  of  the  causes  of  this  war  and  of  the  issues 
involved. 

Never  before  have  all  parties  to  a  conflict  so  readily 
published  their  diplomatic  correspondence,  never  before 
have  diplomats  hastened  to  publish  their  memoirs  and 
diaries  before  a  contest  ended,  and  never  before  have 
governments  expended  such  vast  sums  on  propaganda. 
For  this  phenomenon  there  is  a  twofold  explanation: 
First,  nations  can  no  longer  conduct  a  successful  war 
without  thoroughly  acquainting  the  people  who  support 
the  war,  and  the  soldiers  who  must  bear  the  brunt  of  the 
fighting,  with  the  causes  and  aims  of  the  war.  Reason, 
therefore,  has  a  larger  influence  in  the  world  than  ever 
before,  and  since  19 14  there  has  been  a  constant  appeal 
to  its  verdict.  The  second  explanation  concerns  the 
importance  of  morale,  cooperation,  and  zeal  among  both 
civilians  and  soldiers.  This  could  be  aroused  and  main- 
tained only  by  the  dissemination  of  information.  The 
importance  of  this  factor  is  realized  when  we  recall  that 
the  collapse  of  Russia  and  the  Italian  reverses  in  191 7 
were  due  to  a  failure  to  inform  the  average  man,  dvilian 


246  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

and  soldier,  of  the  issues  at  stake  and  of  the  poHcy  of  the 
government.  On  the  other  hand,  in  England,  France, 
and  America,  where  the  imparting  of  information  to  the 
plain  people  was  seriously  undertaken,  the  morale  was 
not  broken. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  secured  the  coop- 
eration of  two  agencies  in  collecting  and  disseminat- 
ing this  information.  One  was  the  National  Board  of 
Historical  Service,  an  organization  of  university  and 
college  teachers  of  history  financed  by  the  Carnegie 
Endowment  for  International  Peace;  the  other  was  the 
Cormnittee  on  Public  Information,  a  government  bureau. 
The  National  Board  prepared  a  series  of  essays,  addresses, 
and  other  material  pertaining  to  the  war  and  its  issues, 
and  these  were  given  free  to  the  public  in  the  form  of 
pamphlets  through  the  Committee  on  Public  Informa- 
tion. The  pamphlets  were  issued  in  three  groups: 
"Red,  White  and  Blue  Series,"  "War  Information 
Series,"  and  "Loyalty  Leaflets." 

The  "Red,  White,  and  Blue  Series."  The  "Red, 
White,  and  Blue  Series"  forms  a  good  course  in  history 
for  teaching.  These  numbers  may  be  found  in  all  public 
libraries  and  should  if  possible  be  in  every  school  library 
and  should  also  form  a  part  of  the  history  course  for  stu- 
dents.    The  series  is  as  follows : 

1.  How  the  War  Came  to  America.  Contains,  as  the 
title  indicates,  the  causes  of  the  war.  Moreover,  it  con- 
tains President  Wilson's  address  to  the  Senate,  January, 
191 7,  in  which  he  stated  why  America  must  take  part  in 
"the  great  enterprise,"  and  the  address  of  April  2,  19 18, 
in  which  he  asked  Congress  to  declare  war. 

2.  National  Service  Handbook.  The  story  of  how  the 
nation  of  a  himdred  million  people  was  organized  for  war. 


THE  LIBRARY   AND   GOVERNMENT  AIDS        247 

3.  The  Battle  Line  oj  Democracy.  A  book  of  133  pages 
containing  selections  of  prose  and  poetry  dealing  with  the 
war  drawn  from  every  nation  of  the  allied  countries. 

4.  The  President's  Flag  Day  Speech,  with  Evidence  of 
Germany s  Plans. 

5.  Conquest  and  Kultur.  The  aims  of  Germany  told 
by  the  means  of  logical  arrangement  of  statements  from 
the  rulers. 

6.  German  War  Practices.  Part  I.  Treatment  of 
Civilians.  How  Germany  treats  the  civilian  popula- 
tion of  conquered  territory,  and  what  treaties  were 
signed  by  Germany  pledging  the  protection  of  noncom- 
batants. 

7.  War  Cyclopedia.  A  handy  compendivun  of  informa- 
tion concerning  practically  every  event,  man,  slogan,  or 
issue  relating  to  the  war. 

8.  German  Treatment  of  Conquered  Territory.  This  is 
Part  II  of  German  War  Practices.  Includes  a  story  of  the 
destruction  of  Louvain  and  other  "wanton  destruction," 

9.  War,  Labor,  and  Peace.  Some  recent  addresses  and 
writings  of  the  President. 

10.  German  Plots  and  Intrigues  in  the  United  States 
during  the  Period  of  Our  Neutrality.  By  E,  E.  Sperry 
(Syracuse  University)  and  Willis  M.  West  (University 
of  Minnesota).  Attempts  of  German  official  agents  dur- 
ing the  period  of  our  neutrality  to  stir  up  troubles 
and  commit  crimes  in  the  United  States  with  a  view  to 
embarrassing  the  Allies  and  aiding  Germany. 

These  may  be  had  free  with  the  exceptions  of  Nos.  2,  3, 
and  7,  for  which  charges  are  made  of  15,  15,  and  25  cents, 
respectively. 

"War  Information  Series."  The  second  series  issued 
by  the  Committee  on  Public  Information  is  the  "War 


248  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Information  Series."     It  included  the  following  numbers 
when  this  information  was  secured: 

loi.  The  War  Message  and  the  Facts  behind  It. 

102.  The  Nation  in  Arms. 

103.  The  Government  of  Germany.  By  Charles  D. 
Hazen  (Columbia  University). 

104.  The  Great  War:  From  Spectator  to  Participant. 
By  Andrew  C.  McLaughlin  (University  of  Chicago). 

105.  War  of  Self  Defense.  By  Secretary  of  State 
Robert  Lansing  and  Assistant  Secretary  of  Labor 
Louis  F.  Post. 

106.  American  Loyalty.  By  American  citizens  of  Ger- 
man descent. 

107.  Amerikanische  Burgertretie.  (A  German  transla- 
tion of  the  preceding  pamphlet.) 

108.  American  Interest  in  Popular  Government  Abroad. 
By  E.  B.  Greene  (University  of  Illinois). 

109.  Home  Reading  Course  for  Citizen  Soldiers.  Pre- 
pared by  the  War  Department. 

no.  First  Session  of  the  War  Congress.  Compiled  by 
Charles  Merz. 

111.  The  German  War  Code.  By  G.  W.  Scott  (Colum- 
bia University)  and  J.  W.  Garner  (University  of  Illinois). 

112.  American  and  Allied  Ideals.  By  Stuart  P. 
Sherman  (University  of  Illinois). 

113.  German  Militarism  and  Its  German  Critics.  By 
Charles  Altschul. 

114.  The  War  for  Peace.  By  Arthur  D.  Call,  Secre- 
tary of  the  American  Peace  Society. 

115.  Why  America  Fights  Germany.  By  John  S.  P. 
Tatlock  (Stanford  University). 

116.  The  Study  of  the  Great  War.  By  Samuel  B. 
Harding  (University  of  Indiana). 


THE   LIBRARY   AND   GOVERNMENT  AIDS        249 

117.  The  Activities  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Infor- 
mation. 

This  series  is  sent  free  to  all  citizens  upon  application. 
As  the  title  indicates,  the  publications  treat  especially 
of  German  government  and  German  ideals.  The  Govern- 
ment of  Germany  by  Professor  Hazen,  of  Colimibia,  is  a 
masterly  exposition  of  the  German  government,  showing 
definitely  why  there  was  not  democracy  in  the  German 
Empire  and  why  there  could  be  none  under  the  old  regime. 
More  closely  related  is  Scott  and  Gamer's  German  War 
Code,  in  which  the  German  code  is  contrasted  with  war 
manuals  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  France. 
A  study  of  Nos.  in,  113,  and  116  will  give  a  good  insight 
into  German  efficiency  in  its  relation  to  human  freedom. 

"Loyalty  Leaflets."  The  "Loyalty  Leaflets"  consist  of 
short  addresses  published  in  little  pocket  leaflets  and  sent 
free  upon  application.  They  include  the  following  numbers : 

201.  Friendly  Words  to  the  Foreign  Born.  By  Hon. 
Joseph  Buffington,  Senior  United  States  Circuit  Judge 
of  the  Third  Circuit. 

202.  The  Prussian  System.  By  F.  C.  Walcott,  of  the 
United  States  Food  Administration. 

203.  Labor  and  the  War.  President  Wilson's  address 
to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  at  Buffalo,  N.Y., 
November  12,  1917. 

204.  A  War  Message  to  the  Farmer.  President  Wil- 
son, January  31,  19 18. 

205.  Plain  Issues  of  the  War.  By  Elihu  Root,  ex- 
Secretary  of  State. 

206.  Ways  to  Serve  the  Nation.  A  proclamation  by  the 
President,  April  16,  19 17. 

207.  What  Really  Matters.  By  a  well-known  news- 
paper writer. 

17 


250  EDUCATION  FOR  DEMOCRACY 

PUBLICATIONS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 
BUREAU   OF   EDUCATION 

Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  High  Schools  of  Six 
Eastern  States.  By  C.  H.  Lane.  The  six  states  dis- 
cussed are  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Vermont.  The  treatment 
of  the  subject  in  each  of  these  states  includes  courses  of 
study  and  equipment,  improvement  of  teachers  in  service, 
home  projects,  agricultural  clubs,  libraries,  special 
features,  etc. 

The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life.  By  Meyer  Bloom- 
field.  A  study  of  the  relation  between  school  and 
employment  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Germany. 

Educative  and  Economic  Possibilities  of  School-directed 
Home  Gardening  in  Richmond,  Indiana.  By  J.  L.  Randall. 
The  contents  embrace  the  growth  of  garden  promotion 
in  recent  years,  how  home  gardens  were  obtained,  the 
work  of  elementary-  and  high-school  pupils,  relation  of 
school  garden  to  juvenile  crime,  and  effect  on  civic  duty 
and  city  pride. 

The  Massachusetts  Home-Project  Plan  of  Vocational 
Agricultural  Education.  By  R.  W.  Stimson.  A  detailed 
account  of  part-time  work  in  agriculture,  productive 
farming  as  educational  projects,  school  projects,  and 
other  farm  work,  parents  pledging  cooperation,  prizes 
and  other  home  projects,  home  projects  suitable  for 
vocational  agricultural  schools,  kinds  of  project  knowl- 
edge, project  records,  fruit  growing,  bee  keeping,  poultry 
keeping,  sheep  and  goat  husbandry,  vegetable  growing, 
swine  husbandry,  ornamental  plants,  etc.,  and  suggestions 
to  teachers. 

Public  School  Classes  for  Crippled  Children.  By  Edith 
Reeves   Solenberger.    Embraces   history   of   schools 


THE  LIBRARY  AND   GOVERNMENT   AIDS        251 

and  special  classes  for  cripples,  need  for  special  buildings 
and  special  courses,  why  children  are  crippled,  food  and 
care  of  cripples,  special  courses,  practice  in  Chicago, 
Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  and  Baltimore. 

A  Community  Center  —  What  It  Is  and  How  to  Organize 
It.  By  Henry  E.  Jackson.  The  contents  embrace  the 
schoolhouse  as  a  community  forum,  home  and  school 
league,  the  commimity  bank,  cooperative  exchange,  how 
to  organize  community  centers,  officers  and  constitution. 

Vocational  Guidance.  Contains  papers  presented  at  the 
organization  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  Association, 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  October  21-24,  1913-  The 
following  topics  are  discussed :  the  larger  social,  economic, 
and  educational  bearings  of  vocational  guidance;  prac- 
tical, scientific,  and  professional  phases  of  vocational 
value;  vocational  guidance  within  the  public  school;  how 
shall  we  study  an  industry  for  ptirposes  of  vocational  and 
educational  guidance? 

Americanization  as  a  War  Measure.  The  report  of  a 
conference  called  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  held 
in  Washington  April  3,  19 18,  containing  addresses  of 
Franklin  K.  Lane,  George  Creel,  Will  Irwin,  P.  P.  Claxton, 
and  others. 

The  Readjustment  of  a  Rural  High  School  to  the  Needs 
of  the  Community.  By  H.  A.  Brown.  Colebrook  Acad- 
emy of  New  Hampshire  is  taken  as  a  type.  Its  aim,  its 
buildings,  its  different  departments,  its  garden,  its  faculty, 
the  apportionment  of  the  work,  the  administration,  and 
the  progress  of  study  are  treated.  The  pamphlet  is  well 
illustrated. 

Activities  of  School  Children  in  Out-of-School  Hours. 
By  C.  D.  Jarvis.  Treats  of  the  employment  of  chil- 
dren during  vacation,  nature  of  the  employment,  earnings 


252  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

and  kind  of  employment,  why  children  leave  school, 
home  gardening  as  a  substitute  for  the  common  forms  of 
employment,  recommendations. 

Music  Education  in  the  United  States.  By  Arthur  L. 
Manchester.  The  contents  embrace  an  historical 
development,  beginnings  of  former  music  education,  music 
in  schools  and  colleges,  natiure  and  scope  of  subjects, 
illustrative  curriculimi,  courses  of  study,  past  and  present 
tendencies. 

Schoolhouse  Sanitation.  By  William  A.  Cook.  A 
study  of  the  laws  and  regulations  governing  the  hygiene 
and  sanitation  of  schoolhouses,  state  control,  the  site,  the 
water  supply,  toilets,  protection  against  fire  and  panic, 
lighting,  cleaning  and  disinfecting  furniture  and  equip- 
ment, and  a  bibliography. 

Three  Short  Courses  in  Home  Making.  By  Carrie 
Alberta  Lyford.  Treats  of  a  home  economics  library 
for  the  rural  school,  and  gives  twenty  lessons  in  care  of 
the  home  and  school,  twenty  lessons  in  cooking  for  the 
rtural  school,  twenty  lessons  in  sewing  for  the  rural  school, 
and  figures. 

Important  Features  in  Rural  School  Improvement.  By 
W.  T.  Hodges.  Special  reports  from  rural  superinten- 
dents to  the  Bureau  of  Education  dealing  with  admin- 
istration and  supervision,  instruction,  improvement  of 
teachers  in  service,  self-grading  of  teachers,  improvement 
of  building,  grounds,  and  equipment,  socializing  the  school, 
and  miscellaneous  notes. 

The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics.  By  J.  Lynn 
Barnard,  F.  W.  Carrier,  Arthur  W.  Dunn,  and  C.  D. 
KiNGSLEY.  Report  of  a  special  Committee  on  the  Reor- 
ganization of  Secondary  Education.  Part  I  discusses 
aims  and  methods  in  teaching  community  civics,  who  is 
the  good  citizen,  stages  in  developing  good  citizenship, 


THE   LIBRARY  AND   GOVERNMENT   AIDS        253 

the  place  of  community  civics  in  school  program,  specific 
aims,  methods  in  teaching,  and  appreciation  of  principles. 
Part  II  contains  suggested  treatment  of  the  element  of 
welfare — health,  protection  of  life  and  property,  recrea- 
tion, education,  civic  duty,  wealth,  communication, 
transportation,  immigration,  charities,  correction,  how 
governmental  agencies  are  conducted  and  financed. 
Part  III  contains  bibliographical  suggestions. 

Agricultural  Teaching.  Contains  papers  presented  at 
the  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Agricultural  Teaching,  Novem- 
ber II,  1 9 13.  These  topics  are  treated:  home  project 
work,  courses  of  study  in  agricultural  colleges,  scope  and 
purpose  of  agriculture  in  secondary  schools,  report  on  use 
of  land  in  connection  with  agricultural  teaching. 

Consolidation  of  Schools  and  Transportation  of  Pupils. 
By  A.  C.  MoNAHAN.  A  history  of  the  extent  of  the  con- 
solidation movement,  state  legislation,  transportational 
arrangements  and  costs,  costs  of  consolidation,  educa- 
tional advantages,  some  types  of  consolidated  schools  in 
Kentucky,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Mississippi,  Washing- 
ton, Arkansas,  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick. 

Library  Books  for  High  Schools.  By  Martha  Wilson. 
A  list  based  on  the  Minnesota  school  library  list  for 
high  school,  19 13-14:  (i)  classification  for  school  library 
—  general  works,  philosophy,  religion,  mythology,  soci- 
ology, science,  useful  arts,  fine  arts,  literature,  and  history; 
(2)  classification  for  agriculture — agriculture,  soils,  plant 
husbandry,  field  crops,  horticulture,  forestry,  animal 
husbandry,  dairy  farming,  other  agricultural  industries; 
magazines  for  teachers  and  school  libraries ;  general  refer- 
ence books. 

Agriculture  and  Rural  Life  Day.  By  E.  C.  Brooks. 
Material  for  observance  of  special  days,  history  of  man's 


254  EDUCATION  FOR   DEMOCRACY 

Struggle  for  food,  application  of  science  to  agriculture, 
men  influential  in  improving  agriculture,  our  domestic 
animals,  our  leading  agricultural  products,  a  study  of  our 
forests,  appropriate  songs  and  selections. 

Summer  Sessions  of  City  Schools.  By  W.  S.  Deffen- 
BAUGH.  Includes  a  history  of  summer  school  terms, 
nimiber  of  high  schools  having  simmier  terms,  number  of 
elementary  schools  having  simimer  terms,  reports  of 
different  cities,  financial  savings,  all-year  schools,  what 
children  and  parents  say,  progress,  health,  teachers, 
expense,  and  course  of  study. 

Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education.  By  Henry 
Neumann.  Treats  of  the  report  of  the  Commission  on 
the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  appointed  by 
the  National  Education  Association,  the  importance  of 
moral  aims  in  education,  problem  of  distinct  courses  in 
education,  moral  values  in  pupil  activities,  importance  of 
interpreting  experiences  and  suggesting  new  ideas,  ethical 
values  in  the  various  studies,  and  the  teaching  staff. 

Training  in  Courtesy.  By  Margaret  S.  McNaught. 
A  discussion  of  the  importance  of  instruction  in  manners 
in  America;  what  constitutes  good  conduct — cleanliness, 
neatness,  care  of  public  property,  conduct  at  school, 
what  to  do  and  what  not  to  do,  conduct  at  home,  common 
courtesies,  manners  at  the  table,  how  to  behave  in  camp 
or  at  a  picnic,  general  rules  of  conduct  and  good  manners 
dramatized. 

THE   FLAG 

Proper  display  and  use  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  The 
proper  display  and  uses  of  the  American  flag  are  controlled, 
not  by  specific  laws,  but  by  military  regulation  and  usage. 
The  following  rules  have  the  sanction  of  the  government : 

I.  When  the  flag  is  being  raised,  it  should  fly  free  during 
the  act  of  hoisting.     It  should  never  be  rolled  up  and 


THE  LIBRARY  AND  GOVERNMENT  AIDS        255 

hoisted  at  the  top  of  the  staff  before  being  unfurled. 
When  used  as  a  banner,  the  imion  should  fly  to  the  north 
in  streets  running  east  and  west,  and  to  the  east  in  streets 
running  north  and  south.  It  should  always  fly  from  the 
top  of  the  mast  except  in  case  of  a  death,  when  it  may  fly 
at  half-mast. 

2.  When  the  flag  is  lowered,  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  touch  the  ground,  nor  the  deck  of  a  ship,  nor  the  floor 
of  a  room.  It  should  be  taken  down  slowly  and  with 
dignity,  and  should  never  be  permitted  to  trail  in  the  dust. 
The  flag  should  always  be  raised  or  lowered  by  hand,  and 
not  by  any  mechanical  device. 

3.  When  the  flag  is  used  as  a  decoration,  it  should  not 
be  hung  where  it  can  be  contaminated  or  soiled  easily. 
Nor  should  it  be  draped  over  chairs  and  benches  for  seat- 
ing purposes.  No  object  or  emblem  of  any  kind  should 
be  placed  upon  it  or  above  it  and  no  nails  or  spikes  or  pins 
should  be  driven  through  it.  When  colors  are  desired 
for  decorative  purposes,  use  red,  white,  and  blue  bunting. 
Always  let  the  flag  hang  straight. 

4.  When  the  flag  is  passing  in  parade  or  in  review,  the 
spectators  should  if  walking  halt,  and  if  sitting  arise  and 
stand  at  attention  and  uncover. 

5.  When  the  national  flag  is  displayed  with  state  or 
other  flags,  it  should  be  given  the  place  of  honor  on  the 
right.  International  usage  forbids  the  display  of  the 
flag  of  one  nation  above  that  of  another  with  which  it  is 
at  peace.  Such  an  act  is  considered  an  insult  in  time  of 
peace.  When  the  flags  of  two  or  more  nations  are  dis- 
played, they  should  be  on  separate  staffs  of  equal  size  and 
on  the  same  level. 

6.  When  the  flag  is  no  longer  fit  for  use  it  should  not 
be  used  for  any  secondary  purposes,  but  it  should  either 
be  laid  away  to  be  kept  as  a  valued  relic  or  should  be 


256  EDUCATION   FOR   DEMOCRACY 

privately  destroyed  in  a  way  wholly  lacking  either  in 
irreverence  or  in  disrespect. 

7.  The  flag  should  not  be  permitted  to  fly  at  night. 
Only  in  three  places  in  America  does  the  national  flag 
officially  fly  both  by  night  and  day  —  over  the  east  and 
west  fronts  of  the  National  Capitol  and  over  the  adjacent 
House  of  Representatives  and  Senate  Office  Buildings. 
When  the  Stars  and  Stripes  floats  from  the  flagstaff,  from 
simrise  to  sunset,  it  indicates  the  presence  of  the  President 
in  Washington.  Likewise,  when  it  floats  over  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  it  indicates  that  those 
bodies  are  in  session. 

8.  Congress  has  provided  by  an  act  (1905)  that  a  trade 
mark  cannot  be  registered  which  consists  of  or  comprises 
"the  flag,  the  coat  of  arms,  or  the  insignia  of  the  United 
States,  or  any  simulation  thereof."  Moreover,  an  act 
was  passed  in  19 17  providing  penalties  for  the  desecration, 
mutilation,  or  improper  use  of  the  flag  within  the  District 
of  Columbia.  The  several  states  have  similar  laws  against 
the  desecration  or  misuse  of  the  flag. 

9.  When  pupils  are  given  instruction  in  regard  to 
saluting  the  flag,  this  pledge  is  generally  used:  "I  pledge 
allegiance  to  my  Flag  and  the  Republic  for  which  it 
stands,  one  nation,  indivisible,  with  liberty  and  justice 
or  all." 

While  the  pledge  is  being  repeated  the  students  stand 
with  the  right  hand  palm  downward,  parallel  to  the  fore- 
head, imtil  the  word  "flag"  is  reached,  then  the  arm  is 
extended  toward  the  flag  palm  upward  and  this  position 
is  maintained  until  the  pledge  is  completed. 

The  National  Geographic  Magazine,  October,  19 17,  is 
devoted  entirely  to  a  study  of  the  flags  of  all  coimtries 
and  their  proper  use.  It  is  from  this  number  that  most 
of  the  above  facts  were  obtained. 


THE   INDEX 


Absentee  landlordism,  120 
Age  of  responsibility,  157 
Agriculture,  changes  desirable  in 

the  teaching  of,  229 
Aids  to  teachers,  239-256 
Albert,  King,  reference  to,  48 
Aley,   Robert  J.,   quoted,    152, 

154 
Alsace-Lorraine,  30 
Americanism,  8,  11,  i6,  45flf.,  50 

fruits  of,  8  ff . 
Animal  husbandry,  changes  de- 
sirable in  the  teaching  of, 
230 
Arbitration,  policy  of  the  United 

States,  21 
Arithmetic: 

changes  desirable  in  the  teach- 
ing of,  149 
enrichment  of  the  study  of, 

237 
Arnold,  Felix,  quoted,  80 
Arnold,  Thomas,  quoted,  164 
Autocracy,  6,  25  ff.,  35,  70  ff. 
and  democracy,  struggle  be- 
tween, 26,  35,  71 
in  government,  25  ff. 
in  school  administration,  31, 
70  ff. 
Ayers,  Leonard  P.,  quoted,  84 

Betts,  George  Herbert,  quoted, 
100,  175 


Biography: 

as  a  means  of  teaching  moral 

values,  190 
as  a  means  of  teaching  respect 

for  law  and  order,  163 
as  a  means  of  teaching  value 

of  industry,  210 
Bloomfield,  Meyer,  quoted,  77 
Boy  Scout  code,  181 
Brooks,  E.  C,  quoted,  23 
Brumbaugh,  Martin  G.,  quoted, 

115,  142 
Bryce,  James,  quoted,  2 
Bureau  of  Education,  publica- 
tions of,  250 
Business.'analogy  between  school 

administration  and,  76,  88 
Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  quoted, 

65 

Cadets,  209 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.,  quoted,  103 
Carranza,  President,  quoted,  49 
Chadsey,  Charles  E.,  quoted,  84 
Children,  needs  of,  in  the  com- 
munity, 136 
Church,  standard  of,  179 
Citizenship : 
a   moral   sense  necessary  to 

good,  175  ff- 
basis  of,  152  ff. 

granted  to  all  nationalities  In 
the  United.States,  19 


257 


258 


THE   INDEX 


Citizenship  (continued) : 
idleness  a  foe  to,  195  ff. 
ignorance  a  foe  to,  213  ff. 
moral  sense  necessary  to  good, 

175  ff- 
Civics: 
as  a  means  of  teaching  respect 

for  law  and  order,  162 
changes  desirable  in  the  teach- 
ing of,  234 
Clapp,  Henry  Lincoln,  quoted, 

89 
Classroom: 

democracy  in,  92 
cooperation  in,  97 
need  of  a  new  aim  in  instruc- 
tion in,  147  ff. 
Claxton,  P.  P.,  quoted,  195 
Clay,  Henry,  quoted,  15 
Cobb,  Irvin  S.,  quoted,  60 
Committee  on  Public  Informa- 
tion, 56 
publications  of,  246  ff . 
Community: 
betterment  of  the,  116 
cooperation  of,  for  war  work,  59 
directing  the  energies  of  the, 

133  ff- 
methods   of   cooperation   in, 

133  ff- 
needs  of  children  in,  136 
needs  of  men  in,  138 
needs  of  women  in,  137 
organizing  for  better  leader- 
ship, 118  ff. 
strength   of,    in    the   United 
States,  17 
Community   and  national  life, 
lessons  drawn  from,  224  ff. 
Community  center,  119,  131 


Community  cooperation,  17,  59, 

133  ff- 
Community  leadership,  108  ff. 
need  of,  109 
organizing  for,  1 18  ff. 
Composition,    subjects    derived 

from  the  community,  237 
Conduct  of  students,  186 
Conservation  of  food,  140 
Consolidation  of  school  districts 

122 
Constitution     of     the     United 
States,  purpose  of,  1 1, 15, 16 
Cook,  A.  S.,  reference  to,  85 
Cooperation : 

in  making  course  of  study,  84 
in  reading  circles,  85 
in  school  management,  80  ff. ; 
phases  for  study,  93,  95  ff., 
186 
in  the  classroom,  97 
in  the  community,  17, 59, 133  ff. 
in  student  management,  95  ff. 
in  the  United  States  in  pre- 
paring for  war,  52,  59,  199 
of  school  and  community,  17, 
72,  111,117,  119, 130, 133  ff. 
of  school  and  fraternal  organ- 
izations, 129 
of  school  and  religious  forces, 
127 
Council  of  National  Defense,  53 
County  agents,  need  of  reforms 

in  work  of,  126 
Course  of  study,  making  of,  84 
Court  procediu-e  as  a  means  of 
teaching  respect  for  law  and 
order,  166 
Crafts,  Wilbur  P.,  quoted,  128 
Crane,  Frank,  quoted,  51 


THE  INDEX 


259 


Credit  for  home  work,  204 

Crime,  juvenile,  155 

Current  events  as  a  means  of 

teaching  moral  values,  109 
Curriculum,  changes  desirable  ini 

226  fif. 

Davis,  Jesse  Buttrick,  quoted, 

195 

Declaration  of  Independence: 

origin  of  doctrines  found  in,  1 1 

quotation  from,  9 
Democracy,  6,  51  ff.,  67 

and   autocracy,    struggle   be- 
tween, 26,  35,  71 

community  leadership   in   a, 
108  fif.,  118  ff. 

how  made  fit,  51  fif. 

in    educational    institutions, 
63-144,  74,  80  ff. 

in  government,  1-62 

in  prison  management,  90,  91 

in  promotion  of  pupils,  100 

in  student  management,  89  fif., 

95  ff- 
lack  of,  in  school  management, 

73 
leadership  in  a,  108  S. 

Dewey,  John,   quoted,  95,  98, 
147,  151,  202 

Disabled,   re-education   of  the, 
225 

Domestic  science,  changes  desir- 
able in  the  teaching  of,  233 

Earhart,  Lida  B.,  quoted,  89,  95, 

97 
Education: 

a  new  emphasis  in,  145-238 
National  Council  of,  56 


Educational  system: 

of  Germany,  31 

of  the  United  States,  18 
Elective  system,  92 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  quoted,  loi 
Europe,  government  of,  in  1776, 

9 

Exercise  as  means  of  combating 
idleness,  203 

Finley,  John  H.,  quoted,  216, 

220 
Flag: 
lack  of  respect  for,  156 
proper  display  and  use  of,  254 
respect  for,  164 
Food  conservation,  140 
Food  Control  Board,  54 
Forest  preservation,  141 
Fourth  of  July,   191 8,  celebra- 
tions of,  9,  47 
France,  Americans  in,  60 
Fraternal  organizations,  cooper- 
ation of  school  with,  129 
Frederick  II,  quoted,  25 
Freedom: 
how  preserved  in  the  United 

States,  15  ff. 
spirit  of,  effect  on  nations,  12 

Geography,  changes  desirable  in 

the  teaching  of,  231 
George  Junior  Republic,  105 
Germany: 

educational  system  of,  31 

government  of,  28 
Gladstone,  William,  quoted,  91 
Government : 

duties  of,  16 

of  Europe  in  1776,  9 


26o 


THE  INDEX 


Government   aids  to   study   of 

war,  5,  245  ff. 
Great  War.     See  World  War. 
Grosvenor,  Gilbert,  quoted,  165 

Hall,  Otis,  E.,  quoted  100 
Harris,  William  T.,  reference  to, 

99 
Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  quoted, 

65 
Hart,  Joseph  Kinmont,  quoted, 

64 
Health  conservation,  134,  191 
Health  preservation  as  a  means 

of   teaching   moral   values, 

191 
Hill,  David  Jayne,  quoted,  2,  34 
HiU,  James  J.,  quoted,  120 
Hill,  Mabel,  quoted,  95 
History: 

aim  in  teaching,  162 

as  a  means  of  teaching  moral 

values,  188 
as  a  means  of  teaching  respect 

for  law  and  order,  161 
topics  for  teachers,  35,  44,  62 
Hodges,  George,  quoted,  168 
Home  work,  credit  for,  204 
Hoover,  Herbert,  quoted,  141 
Hughes,  Charles  E.,  quoted,  8 

Ideal,  a  national,  65  ff. 
Ideals : 

American,  66  ff. 

of  the  nations,  65  ff. 
Idleness,  195  ff. 

methods  of  attack,  203 

subjects  valuable  in  teaching 
evils  of,  210 

the  school's  relation  to,  202  ff. 


Ignorance  a  foe  to  good  citizen- 
ship, 213  ff. 

Illiteracy,  the  problem  of,  213  ff. 
dangers  of,  216,  218 
how  to  combat,  220,  221 

Independence  Day,  19 18,  cele- 
brations of,  9,  47 

Independence,  Declaration  of. 
See  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

Instruction,  need  of  new  aim  in 
classroom,  147  ff. 

James,  William,  quoted,  99,  204 

Jay  Treaty,  21 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  quoted,   15, 

16,  18,  56,  213 
Jewish  Welfare  Board,  58 
Juvenile  crime,  155 

Kitchener,  Lord,  quoted,  178 
Kellogg,  Vernon,  quoted,  176 
Kennedy,  Joseph,  quoted,  108 
Klemm,  quoted,  33 
Knights  of  Columbus,  58,  182 

Lane,  Franklin  K.,  quoted,  59, 

139,  213 
Lathrop,  Julia  C,  quoted,  229 
Law  and  order: 

as  basis  of  good  citizenship, 
152  ff. 

disrespect   for,    evidences   of, 

153 
methods  of  teaching  respect 

for,  157,  160  ff.,  168  ff. 
necessity  for  teaching,  153 
outline   for   teaching   respect 

for,  169 
use  of  textbook  in  teaching, 

161  ff. 


THE   INDEX 


261 


Leadership : 

need  of  democratic,  109 
organizing  the  community  for 

better,  ii8ff. 
Lewis,  William  D.,  quoted,  95 
Liberty,      how      preserved     in 

America,  16 
Librarian  as  an  aid  to  teachers, 

242 
Library,  241  flF. 

need  of,  in  the  rural  schools, 

244 
Library  movement,  241 
Library  War  Council,  58 
Lincoln  School,  self-government 

in,  103 
Lindsey,  Judge    Ben,   reference 

to,  158 
Literature  as  a  means  of  teach- 
ing moral  values,  188 
Locke,  John,  reference  to,  198 
Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth, 

quoted,  45 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  quoted, 

15 
Lowe's  Grove  Farm  Life  School, 

138 
"Loyalty  Leaflets,"  249 

McConaughy,  quoted,  32 
Marshall,  John,  quoted,  15 
Men,  needs  of,  in  the  commu- 
nity, 138 
Miller,  quoted,  146,  240 
Mob  spirit,  154 

among  boys,  1 56 
Monroe  Doctrine,  20,  22 
Monroe,  Paul,  quoted,  65 
Montesorri,  Madame,  reference 
to,  96 


More,  Thomas,  reference  to,  198 
Moral  values,  185 

how  to  teach,  186 
Morale,  agencies  for  preserving 

soldiers',  57 
Music  as  a  means  of  teaching 

moral  values,  191 

National  Council  of  Education, 

56 
National  Defense,  Council  of,  53 
National  Gas  Defense  Board,  54 
National  Labor  Board,  55 
Nature  study,  changes  desirable 

in  the  teaching  of,  227 
Neumann,  Hemy,  quoted,  185, 

189,  193 

Orlando,  Vittorio,  quoted,  48 
Osborne,  Thomas  Mott,  quoted, 
90,91 

Page,  Walter  H.,  quoted,  108 
Page,  William  Tyler,  quoted,  8 
Palmer,  George  Herbert,  quoted, 

185 
Panama  tolls,  23 
Parker,  Francis  W.,  quoted,  185 
Part-time  classes,  208 
Paulsen,  quoted,  32 
Pestalozzi,  reference  to,  198 
Poincar6,  President,  quoted,  47 
Politics,  relation  of  school  to,  1 12 
Prison  reform,  90,  91 
Promotion  of  pupils,  democracy 

in,  100 
Prussia,  25  S. 
foreign  policy  of,  30 
struggle   between   democracy 

and  autocracy  in,  after'Con- 

gress  of  .Vienna,  25  S, 


262 


THE   INDEX 


Prussianism,  25  ff.,  37  ff .,  50 
Public  Information,  Committee 
on,  56 
publications  of,  246  ff . 

Quick,  Herbert,  quoted,  133 

Reading  circles: 
cooperation  in,  85 
courses  for,  85 
Recitation,  conduct  of,  97,  188 
Reconstruction  work,  134,  225 
Recreation     needs     of     young 

people,  142 
Red  Cross,  60 
Red  Cross  War  Council,  54 
"Red,  White,  and  Blue  Series," 

246 
Religious  bodies,  organized  for 

war  work,  55 
Rousseau,  reference  to,  198 

Sabin,  Henry,  reference  to,  100 
Sadler,  M.  E.,  quoted,  175 
Salvation  Army,  182 
Schleswig-Holstein,  30 
School: 

and  politics,  112 

cooperation  of,  with  the  com- 
munity, 17,  72,  III 

effect  of  national  ideals  on,  67 

foundation  of  the  American, 
18 

problems  of  the,  224  ff. 

standard  for  the,  183 
School  code,  value  of  a,  115 
School  Garden  Army,  the  United 

States,  227 
School  management: 

cooperation  in,  80  ff. 

democracy  in,  89  ff. 


phases  for  study,  93,  95  ff. 
School  system,  foundation  of,  in 

the  United  States,  18 
School  units,  121,  123 
Schoolroom  devices,  100 
Schools,  democratization  of,  80  ff . 
Schwab,  Charles  M.,  quoted,  88 
Self-governing  bodies,  102 
Self-government,  student,  89  ff., 

95  ff- 
stages  in  growth  of,  93,  96  ff. 
warnings  against,  105 
Service  flags,  143 
Smith-Hughes  Act,  reference  to, 

229 
Shipping  Board,  55 
Smith,  Adam,  reference  to,  118 
Sneath,  E.  Hershey,  quoted,  168 
Snedden,  David,  quoted,  80,  230 
Spaulding,  quoted,  80,  81 
Standards,  effect  of  World  War 

on,  5 
Stanley,  Dean,  quoted,  83 
Stars  and  Stripes.     See  Flag. 
Student  activities,  scope  of,  104 
Student    management,    democ- 
racy in,  89  ff.,  95  ff. 
Suffrage,  extension    of,   in    the 

United  States,  19,  20 
Supervision,  cost  of,  117 

Teacherage,  124,  125 
Teachers : 

aids  to,  239-256 

duties  of,  69 

need  of  a  new  aim  in  teaching, 

147  ff. 
relation  to  community,   in, 

113,  116,  119, 133 ff. 
topics  for,  35,  44,  62 


THE    INDEX 


263 


Teachers'  council,  8i 

criticism  of,  83 

in  Los  Angeles,  82 
Teachers'  homes,  124,  125 
Teaching,  moral  aim  in,  185  flE. 

Union,  the,  of  English-speaking 

Peoples,  47 
United  States: 

educational  system  of,  18 

foreign  policy  of,  21 

foreign  wars,  22 

preparation  for  war  in,  52,  59 

problem  of  illiteracy  in,  214 

standards  of,  178 

suffrage  in,  19,  20 

Victor  Emmanuel,  King,  quoted, 

48 
Virginia  Teachers'  Reading 

Circle,  6 
Virtue,  methods  of  teaching,  177 
Vocations,  study  of,  206 
Volksschule,  32 

War,  declarations  of,  38,  39,  40, 

41.  42,  43 
"War  Information  Series,"  247 
War  Trade  Board,  55 
Washington,  George,  quotation 

from  Farewell  Address,  21, 
■     175 


Webster,  Daniel,  quoted,  15 
Welfare  agencies,  58,  61,  182 
William,  Emperor,  quoted,  25 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  quoted,  3,  5, 
6,23,37,136,  152,  195,213, 
224 
Women,  needs  of,  in  the  com- 
munity, 137 
Wood,     Thomas    D.,     quoted, 

134 
"Work  or  fight"   amendment, 

199 
World  War: 
aims  of:  need  of  understand- 
ing, 4;  why  teachers  should 
study,  3  ff . 
cause  of,  35,  38 
declarations  of  war,  38,  39,  40 

41,  42,  43 

effect  of,  on  subjects  in  curric- 
ulum, 5 

government  aids  to  the  study 
of,  5,  245 

land  area  and  population  of 
globe  involved  in,  4,  37 

lessons  from,  199 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation, 58,  128,  182 

Yovmg  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, 128,  182 


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